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Summer exams > Animal Plant > Flashcards

Animal Plant Flashcards

1
Q

mass extinction

A

=a mass extinction is a sharp spike in teh rate of extinction of species caused by a catastrophic event or rapid environmental change

scientists have been able to identify five mass extinctions in earths history each of which lead the loss of more than 75% of a species

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2
Q

a paradox

A

the smallest part about to destroy the others

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3
Q

traditional classification

A

Observation of nested character states
No subdivision betweeen ‘old’ and ‘derived’ New characters within taxonomy
Binomial classification – the species is the only stable taxonomic unit…

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4
Q

monophyletic group

A

= all sister groups + their unique common ancestor

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5
Q

synapomorphy =

A

= new character only shared between C and D sister groups and no other grouping

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6
Q

plesiomorphy =

A

= older
Character shared by several
taxa

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7
Q

Paraphyletic
Grouping

A

does not include all
Descendants of a common
Ancestor)

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8
Q

Emergence of cladistics

A

Numerical methods to establish relationships

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9
Q

are all humans bony fish? (osteichthhans)

A

-yes but we are also mammals and amniotes and tetrapods therefore as fish are not those three we do not share synamaporphies

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10
Q

remember the entire group is defined by

A

the synapomorphies of the last common ancestor of this monophyletic group.

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11
Q

Have the (i.e. all) dinosaurs died out at the end of the Cretaceous, after the meteorite impact 60Mya?

A

-no birds are decedents of dinos therefore some Dions survived

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12
Q

biomineralization =

A

is the process by which mineral crystals are deposited in the matrix of living organisms. This process gives rise to inorganic-based skeletal structures such as bone during development, which is a complex and dynamic organ with both structural and metabolic functions.

LOOK AT ORGIN OF EUKARYOTES

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13
Q

the TCA cycle already existed in archaebacteria

A

-biosyntehtic pathways
-lots of enzymes contain metals

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14
Q

origins of weathering the TCA

A

-These are
Acids release ions/metals
From rock into water:
Si, Fe, Cu, Ca, Mg,
Zinc

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15
Q

origins of weathering BY LOOKING AT TCA

A

Photosynthetic, TCA cycle dependent release of ions from granite, andesite..
Another key function of succinate, malate etc – ancient heritage archaea!
already happened 1.5 billion years ago!

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16
Q

Nummulites

A

single cell organisms with shells

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17
Q

chitin-silica scaffolds

A

on the inside the Golgi apparatus already evolved in
The common (eukaryotic) ancestor of radiolaria and all other metazoans

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18
Q

radiolarian fossils

A

The earliest found radiolarian fossils – about 500 million years old (Lower Cambrian), however, molecular data suggest an age of > 1billion years

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19
Q

Biomineralization is an ancient eukaryotic heritage

A

Which got lost again many times secondarily.

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20
Q

chitin at the heart of shaping the diatom shell

A

discovered enzymes that dissolves chitin

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21
Q

diatoms

A

Diatom cycle – sex..size ctrl.
Algal symbionts…
Make 1/5 of all oxygen that you breathe in every day!
Sensitive proxies for climate parameters.

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22
Q

Pattern of the Golgi defines pattern of the shells – cellulose and chitin as scaffolding.

A

Where does the silica come from?
Weathering of continents – photosynthesis! Why?
Acids…
Function of silica – uv light protection – buoyancy ctrl.

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23
Q

a bit of phylogenetic Thinking: how to determine
The evolutionary origin of a molecule…

A

Is PART OF OUR SHARED eukaryote ANCESTRY

Chitin was later LOST IN DEUTEROSTOMES – this is
why we don’t contain chitin…
although we like to eat it…

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24
Q

how often did multi-cellularity arise?

A

evolved Manu times independently many times therefore certain tools kit allows Multicellularity to occur

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25
Q

multicellularity principles

A

1.Aggregation – watch amazing slime mould movie here ! These are facultative metazoans/multicellular organisms

  1. Staying together after division :
    Choanoflagellates..
  2. Facultative Multicellularity can solve many spatial problems to effectively harvest nutrients in a given area, see in this movie.
    Or in this movie here! This tells you how over-rated the term ‘intelligence’ can actually be…..
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26
Q

phylogeny of metazoans

A

(currently accepted tree on the basis of millions of DNA sequence comparisons)Tree representsrelationships between groups!

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27
Q

The power of phylogenetics:

A

We can see a Stepwise assembly of the integrin cell adhesion system in our fungus-like Opisthokont ancestors

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28
Q

cilia were already there in our fungal opisthocont ancestors

A

another thing they have in common

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29
Q

phylogeny of metazoans

A

850-55 MYA

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30
Q

making glass is in our metazoan ancestry

A

ancestors of metazoans
Novelty: Choanoflagellates with microvili seams (actin filaments in red)
and silica skeleton ( white left).

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31
Q

whole genome sequencing of choanoflagellates (M.brevicolis)

A

provides unprecedented genomic insights into evolutionary novelties during the transition towards metazoans:

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32
Q

cadherins (later part of a unique cell adhesion/cell-cell recognition system)

A

were already there in common
Single cell opistokont ancestor of fungi- choano-
Flagellates and metazoans

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33
Q

New In Metazoans

A

h

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34
Q

to determine if we are in he 6th mass extinction can look

A

at cumulative extinctions
goes up in 1960s after oil begins to become cheap again (greenhouse gases)

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35
Q

we need technological solutions to this crisis for this you need to know

A

-how animals and plants work are built = this is written in the DNA in time and space
-and how they interact

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36
Q

metazoa

A

multiple cellular animals (us)
-833-560 MYA

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37
Q

photosynthetic activity created first mass catastrophe by archaebacteria because so much oxygen was in atmosphere

A

antioxidants evolved

excess oxygen useful for ATP therefore big drop in O once ETC evolved
(endosymbiosis)

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38
Q

Darwin proposed the theory of phylogenetic trees

A

that is why organisms look similar to each other (they are related)

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39
Q

outgroup

A

B shares fears with another species C but not with teh common ancestor of C and D (sister group)

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40
Q

cladistics

A

is a method of hypothesizing relationships among organisms — in other words, a method of reconstructing evolutionary trees. The basis of a cladistic analysis is data on the characters, or traits, of the organisms in which we are interested.

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41
Q

the entire group is determined by

A

the synapomorphies of the last common ancestor of this monophyletic group

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42
Q

osteichythyans

A

advent of premaxillary jaw contribution

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43
Q

we are oesteichthyans but we are also

A

tetrapods

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44
Q

tetrapods

A

means “four legs” in Greek. Amphibians, reptiles (including dinosaurs and birds) and mammals are the major groups of the Tetrapoda. Tetrapods include all land-living vertebrates, such as frogs, turtles, hawks, and lion

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45
Q

generating phylogenetic trees start with

A

D (last common ancestor)

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46
Q

the TCA cycle already existed in archaebacteria

A

these acids causing ions/metals to be released into the water from rock

-Si
-Fe
-Cu
-Ca
-Mg
-zinc

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47
Q

chitin-silican scaffolds on the inside of the golgi apparatus already evolved in the common

A

eukaryitic ancestor of radiolaria and ALL other mtazoans

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48
Q

earlier found radiolarian fossils about 500 million years old

A

however molecular data suggests an age of > 1 billion years

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49
Q

when chitin scaffold is dissolved sillica disolves too!

A

chitin at the heart if shaping diatom shell

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50
Q

where does the silica come from?

A

-weathering of continents - photosynthesis
-acids

function = UV light protection and buoyancy

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51
Q

pattern of the golgi defines patterns of the shells

A

cellulose and chitin as scaffolding

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52
Q

how often does multicellularity arise

A

evolved many times independently
hormones help control

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53
Q

outgroup of metazoans are the

A

choanofagelates
-apicobasal polarity inside single cells

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54
Q

opisthoconts

A

fungi + metazoa +chanoflagelates

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55
Q

the power of phylogenetics

A

we can see stepwise assembly of the integral cell adhesion system in our fungus-like opisthokont ancestors

one necessary functional complex is made of parts of which evolved at a different time

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56
Q

another thing opisthotonos have in common is cilia

A

were already in our fungal opisthocont ancestors

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57
Q

making glass is in our metazoan ancestry

A

novelty = choanoflaggelates with microvilli seams (actin filaments in red)

silica skeleton

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58
Q

microvilli at very base of evolvement of chanoflagellata and

A

metazoa

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59
Q

while genome sequencing of choanaflagellates

A

provides unprecedented genomic insights into evolutionary novelties during the transition towards metazoans

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60
Q

cadherins

A

later part of a unique cell adhesion/cell-cell recognition system

-were already there in common single cell opistokont ancestor of fungi- choanoflagellates and metazoans

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61
Q

new in metazoan

A

1)cadherins (see card earlier)
2)enormous gain of introns
3)exon shuffling as mechanism to generate novel genes
4)evolution of notch and hedgehog signalling molecules during the transistor from the common choanoflagelate ancestors to metazoans

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62
Q

trichoplax

A

two cell layers
no mesoderm
different cell types

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63
Q

trichoplaz sequenced

A

the first want ligand the first neuronal functionality within universalist cells signalling molecules to subdivide the organism adhesion molecules to keep cells together after division

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64
Q

first metazoans is the sponges

A

Porifera
they have choanocytes (have flagella)

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65
Q

first metazoans is the sponges

A

Porifera
they have choanocytes (have flagella)

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66
Q

significance of sponges

A

the solution to Darwins paradox why are there islands of biodiversity in otherwise nutritional deserts in the sea ? SPONGES

sponges feed the corals by providing particulate organic carbon.cellular detritus

therefore sponges at bottom of food chain

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67
Q

how all metazoan cells stick together

A

collagen genes evolved already very early and many got selectively lost in later lineages

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68
Q

first found in sponges the organ of epithelial sheets

A

collagens are required for basement membrane formation of all epithelial tissues in any metazoans body

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69
Q

how do we know sponges have stem cells?

A

ability to regenerate themselves
and give rise to multiple different cell types

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70
Q

flask cells in the sponge are the first ever doing EMT and they form the entire adult animal these cells

A

correspond to what us called the epiblast in vertebrates they are stem cells
-use notch pathway

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71
Q

cnidarian phylogenetic position

A

new evidence to assume that cnidarians are the sister group of all bilaterians

-evidence based on gastrulation(echo/endoderm)

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72
Q

diplobblasta

A

have three cell layers not two therefore definition is wrong

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73
Q

sponges cells/flask cells migrate into larval cell ball (EMT)but this does not lead to inner vs outer vs cells in between flask cells go on their own ->

A

cnidarians + all bilaterians :

new sheet invagination process to form endoderm vs ectoderm before EMT of
-stem cells that become mesoderm
-emergence of neuronal nets
-oral- aboral axis kept into adulthood
(NO ANUS YET)

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74
Q

invagination process

A

is the process of a surface folding in on itself to form a cavity, pouch or tube

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75
Q

gastrulation

A

-mesoderm formation (pre-bilaterian) by invagination of larval epithelium
-gastrulation to produce mesderm as third germ layer + an axis
-mesoderm gives rise to muscles, blood and gonads
-ectoderm gives rise to skin, neurons, CNS surface sensing of the environment
-endoderm gives rise to digestive epithelium and associated glands

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76
Q

cnidarian polyps have a head

A

same genes used in our head

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77
Q

larval specialisation 3 distinct nerve nets

A

-earliest gene for being a neuron is Soc b 2 gene

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78
Q

all metazoans are

A

sentient

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79
Q

3 cell types (neuronal systems

A

-nematocytes = explosive capsule to impact another organism (coral warfare)

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80
Q

how genes are

A

region specific across cnidarians and bilaterians

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81
Q

cnidarian ancestor of

A

bilaterians

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82
Q

an ancestor gene of nodal the key gene that

A

determines the vertebrate left-right body axis also determines asymmetric budding in cnidarians (and corals)

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83
Q

sponges transmit light when injured how?

A

luciferins are chlrophyll heme/flavin ring breakdown products

-the sclerocytes flash light upon regeneration this is transmitted via spicules to contractile pinacocytes/myocytes and sensed by the crypto chromes and effect endogenous oscillations (stem cells to source)

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84
Q

cytochrome’s as blue light sensors - and modulators of circadian rhythms

A

part of circadian rhythm

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85
Q

coral use cytochrome for reproducing

A

sensing moonlight

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86
Q

cnidarians sister group of

A

bilaterians

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87
Q

early larval stages show the transition to a bilaterian

A

as the anus is a bilaterian invention

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88
Q

cnidarian larvae and bilaterians look similar this raises questions but how are they similar

A

sensory systems at front end with brain

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89
Q

non bilateral vs bilaterian

A

non,
sensory systems at front end with some neurons
-body axis
-body appendages
-motile animal as larvae not adults
bilaterian
-keeps moving
-sensory systems at front end with brain
-body axis/worm like
-body appendages/legs

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90
Q

paedomorphosis

A

the adult stage of a descendent species looks like a larval/embroyonic stage of a phylogenetic ancestor

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91
Q

how to make a motile body axis from mesoderm

A

how genes on different chromosomes so bilaterians can use intron invasion to link them all together.(bilaterian novelty)

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92
Q

colinerrity of the hot cluster

A

how genes followed in order = colinaearity
full box cluster in bilaterian ancestor
-deutoerstome acestor
-protostome ancestor
-cnidarian ancestor of bilaterians

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93
Q

an ancestor gene of nodal

A

the key gene that determines the vertebrate left-right body axis also determines asymmetric budding in cnidarians

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94
Q

the left-right nodal (LEFTY PATHWAY) pathway emerges in bilaterians

A

old receptors get a new nodal ligand

nodal gene responsiblee for vertebrate L-R asymmetry

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95
Q

why are butterflies symmetrical (the lefty pathway)

A

the lefty pathway was lost in the ecdysozoa

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96
Q

when did the bilaterians evolve

A

520-580 MYA due to burrowing traces of animals
molecular says over 600 mya

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97
Q

parsimony

A

minimum number of transitions of characters within a given phylogenetic tree

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98
Q

evolution of body appendeges

A

all appendages depend on DII (distalleless) gene action BUT the instructions of how many legs an animal has evolved independently

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99
Q

the urbilaterian animal eyes

A

were already there but were LOCALISED to the front end in bilateral
old programmes get coopted to the front of the animals new brain

there was a pre-adaptation for big compound eyes (multiple pigment and cell pairs) which happened several times INDEPENDENTLY within bilateria

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100
Q

there are fundamental similarities of molecular and cellular organisation between arthropods and vertebrates suggest a sophisticated brain in

A

common bilaterian ancestor

for example both have pituitary glands

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101
Q

annelids

A

segmentation a head, a tail. How genes expressed in order in larval segments

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102
Q

in molluscs

A

teh hot clusters bread down again and become a motor of NOVELTY

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103
Q

ecdysozoa - group features

A

worm like (cycloneuralia)

appendages (pan arthropods)

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104
Q

ecdysozoa in context (abundance and diversity)

A

-today the most abundant animals are nematode worms or plankton-forming crustaceans
-most diverse are insects

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105
Q

encysozoa moulting evolved more than

A

500 MYA

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106
Q

onycophora (claw bearers)

A

-walking worms 14-43 Pairs of non-articulated legs
-papillae secrete adhesive material
-mouth with claws
-molts every 14 days

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107
Q

tardigrades exact position

A

still debating

-soke argue closer to nematodes than to arthropods

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108
Q

tardigrades simple body plan

A

-reproduce by parthenogenesis or male/female
-molts several times during its life
-lives up to year
-eats algae

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109
Q

tardigrades are extremophiles

A

-survive atmospheric conditions up to 20 years
-desiccated can live for decades at -80 °C

if enters DRY state then rehydrates

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110
Q

tardigrade intrinsically disorders proteins (TDPs) are enriched during dessication

A

slow drying ->desiccation -> rehydration

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111
Q

caenorhabdiditis elegant genetic model system

A

genome sequenced in 1988
-EVERY CELL DIVISION TRACKED
-apoptosis ->development (understood that certain cells die due to programmed cell death)

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112
Q

life cycle of a terrestrial, free living nematode

A

embroyo ->L1 -> L2 … L4 ->adult

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113
Q

life cycle of a nematode under stress

A

-enters Dauer (can resist starvation)after L2 which goes straight into L4

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114
Q

daters can migrate by hitchhiking arthropods

A

this will allow them to migrate to better conditions

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115
Q

parasitism

A

evolved several times independently

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116
Q

the Dauer of free-living species is very similar to infective stage of parasites

A

making people think parasitic nematodes evened from normal

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117
Q

Arthropods means

A

= jointed appendages

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118
Q

features of arthropods

A

-clear segmentation
-modified appendages

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119
Q

arthropods orginiated

A

-colonized land in the late Cambrian to early trilobites in fossil record - from Cambrian up to 251 MYA (permian)

ordovician (510 - 471 MYA)

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120
Q

arthropods exoskeleton (good for when they were water bound)

A

-protein
-chitin
-new locomotor/gas exchange solutions can’t move like a worm
-arthropod (jointed foot)
-influence on land invasion

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121
Q

crustacea

A

mostly marine

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122
Q

mutations in how protein correlate with body plan evolution

A

-6 legged insects diverged from crustacean-like ancestor with multiple limbs

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123
Q

one group of chelicerates mites

A

-some are parasites
-Gravid pyemotes Barbara (eggs grow inside mother and the males/females mate)
-males/females eat mother from inside out

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124
Q

symbioisis of coral and photosynthetic algae

A

algae obviously provide photosynthesis products (most importantly photosystem 2 which splits water)

coral provide CARBON

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125
Q

what do teh corals do for the dianoflagellate

A

protection with the green fluorescent protein.

because different pigments can absorb different lights

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126
Q

the sleeping dog of immunity is awakened in corals bleaching

A

symbiont algae shut down the endogenous apoptosis inducing machinery

-with global warming this system breaks down and the symbiont is thrown out and coral dies (without nutrients)

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127
Q

attack of photosystems

A

no protection from host any longer - bleaching

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128
Q

process of calcification

A

hydrogen moving out of space so calcium moves in via transporter.
-proton H=/Ca ATPase pumps are the key targets and victims of acidified oceans

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129
Q

essentials of carbon fixation and biomineralization

A

carbonate and calcium must combine for biomineralisation

coral has 2 carbonic anhydrase enzymes (one makes rock and the thermoses hydrogen out of space

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130
Q

reduction in sea water pH result in significant reduction in pH of

A

calcifying fluid

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131
Q

take reactant out equilibrium shifts

A

to the reactant side so more bicarbonate

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132
Q

temperature as driver of pH changes where it matters - carbonic anhydrase are the targets of our destruction

A

-the higher the sea water temp the lower the pH and the less CO3 available for biomineralization

carbonic anhydrases are particularly sensitive to small reuctions in pH

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133
Q

the lower the pH

A

the lower the calcification rate
directly proportional

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134
Q

he higher the temp

A

the lower the calcification rate
INdirectly proportional

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135
Q

algae can create buffer

A

system at breaking points which is therefore beneficial for the algae (carbonic anhydrase)

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136
Q

lophotrochozoa

A

comprises annelids and molluscs

close to bilaterians

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137
Q

molluscs- common ancestor

A

-head with radula
-foot and intestinal sac
-mantle - biomineralizes into
-shell in some (snails bivalves = mussels, air chambers in CONCHIFERAN DESCENDENTS)
-uses chitin for shell bxomineral nucleation (calcium carbonate)

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138
Q

ancient segmentation of some molluscs - probably from common bilaterian ancestor gets lost in the crown molluscs

A

-a basic mollusc - polyplacophoran. it is unclear if their segmented nature is a primitive feature of all molluscs and shared feature with annelids (or even bilaterians)

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139
Q

Eric kandel discovered the molecular mechanisms of long term memory storage using the mollusc aplasia

A

found cAMP and Kreb involved in memory formation

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140
Q

gains and losses of shells

A

-shells evolved in conchifera and got lost several tikes independently again

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141
Q

deuterostomes contain

A

chordates(craniates amphioxus and tunicates all have notochord)
echinoderms all have

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142
Q

hemichordates

A

hox gene order - collinearity of gene order and expression maintained- just one cluster like in ascidians and amphioxus

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143
Q

teh notochord is an essential signalling centre

A

however some of these features evolved already in a common deuterostome ancestor

cooption of signalling centre by notochord

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144
Q

sonic hedgehog molecule

A

patterns the developing embryo using a concentration gradient

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145
Q

teh notochord and neural tube - key inventions of all chordates

A

germ layers- ectoderm blue
endoderm - yellow
mesoderm - red/green

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146
Q

left right asymmetry of mesoderm is because

A

nodal pathway is active

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147
Q

turichates - Ciona (ascidian) teh simplest chordate

A

can track each cell division

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148
Q

teh turnichte larva but not adult look like chordates

A

all other chordates (us included)
can be thought of as larval ‘retards’

developmental arrest as an evolutionary strategy (pedomorphosis)

has brain cells and pituitary gland

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149
Q

truncates in their notocord

A

cellulose synthesis Inecessary for metamorphosis

notochord = chordates

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150
Q

a vast cross-species comparison gives the answer

A

striking similarity of truncate cellulose synthase to related gene of a cyanobacteria symbiont (notsoc)

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151
Q

horizontal gene transfer unique to

A

tunicate lineage

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152
Q

the early chordate/tunicate brain

A

certain markers to become eyes (retina cells)
potential for hindbrain

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153
Q

reutilisation of Pax6

A

programme within the brain

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154
Q

neural crest cells as

A

4th germ layer
-Hox genes inside neural crest
-NC forming skeleton
somatic vertebrae

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155
Q

neural crest sheaths

A

three sheaths form at base of vertebrates

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156
Q

crenate and amphioxus chordate shared filter feeding

A

gill basket BUT cartilage/skeleton
(derived from neural crest cells)

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157
Q

vertebrates craniates

A

neural crest
tissue generating and organising a branchial apparatus

yellow CNS-brain
green notochord
blue cartilage

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158
Q

the head of jawed vertebrates

A

chondrocranium - originally made of cartilage, later either replaced by endochondral ossification
or covered by bone (through dermal ossification)

viserocraniu or spanchnocranium - cartagnious and dermal bone parts surrounding

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159
Q

palatoquadrate (important)

A

upper jaw of the vertebrates

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160
Q

first ever predator

A

had compound eyes
giant arthropods predators roaming the Cambrian seas

anomalocaris

hard tissues

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161
Q

the arthropods were well ahead of the vertebrates by (at least 50-100 MYA)

A

our chordate/vertebrae ancestors were arthropod food for a long term

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162
Q

Palaeontology informs us about the deep evolution of structures:

A

why oeistchythyans are not the first fish with bones
-placoderms first with jaws
-Bony fish evolved fro the common ancestor Osteostracans, placoderms and shark

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163
Q

hesterostracans

A

dark area had electrical currents
enamel outer layer

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164
Q

evolution of vertebrate skeleton in steps

A

-cartillage no bone ancestor
-dermal bone, acellular (no cells inside) enamel caps
-cellular dermal bone pectoral fins
-extensive bone remodelling, teeth

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165
Q

shark have secondary

A

dermal bone loss

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166
Q

two Different types of bone formation

A

1)dermal
-bone sheet formation directly from mesenchyme the oldest ossification form - in the gnathostome stem : astraspis hesterostracans
2)endochondral ossification
-cartilage formation first - to be replaced by bone
-the last form of ossification evolving - in placoderms the first gnathostomes with proper jaws

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167
Q

hesterostracan fish and juvenile placoderm have

A

remarkably similar dermal bone ontogeny

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168
Q

key embryological components of all crown gnathostomes

A

-hindbrain
-brnchial arches
-mesodermal limb buds
-mesodermal somites

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169
Q

neural crest segmentation retained in muscle attachment system

A

matching between hindbrain
-segment
-neural crest in branchial arch
-and its innervation by hindbrain

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170
Q

giant sea scorpions arms race lead to

A

giant placoderms (first vertebrate with proper jaws)

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171
Q

they have tooth like denticles all over their body to generate laminar flow along it
structure of shark teeth (similar to humans)

A

they can regenerate teeth through life (revolver dentition)

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172
Q

key embryological components of all crown gnathostomes

A

-hindbrains
-branchial arches
-mesodermal limb buds
-mesodermal somites

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173
Q

osteichthyan chondrocranium =

A

cartilage the endochondral ossification

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174
Q

osteichthyan dermatocranium =

A

dermal ossification

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175
Q

osteichthyan lower jaw

A

mockers cartalige

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176
Q

osteichthyan part of jaw that joins

A

quadrate

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177
Q

osteichthyan top jaw

A

palatoquadrate

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178
Q

osteichthyan back part of jaw

A

hyomandibula

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179
Q

entelognathus - placoderm

A

very close to osteichthyan stem group

two nostrils on each side

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180
Q

teh crown gnathostome micrometry gets inherited to

A

osteichthhans micrometry is secondary loss

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181
Q

origins of lungs

A

actinopterygll all had the basis of lungs

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182
Q

ventral lungs evolved before

A
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183
Q

when did the osteichythyan liveq

A

silirian time period

high CO2 levels for a very long period of time

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184
Q

earliest arthropod trackway fossils on land:

A

488 MYA (shortly after Cambrian/ordovician transition)

arthropods related to myriapods

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185
Q

early radiation of tetrapods happens in a time of low oxygen/high CO2

A

new methods of breathing (lung vs gill)

probably with lung being additional air storage device in low oxygenated waters - greenhouse effect

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186
Q

tetrapods move onto land AFTER

A

end devonian <362 MYA

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187
Q

evolutionary novelties within the tetrapodomorphs

evolution in steps

A
  • a primary palate direct opening of nasal cavity into mouth = china
    -another sarcoterygian novelty: a toungue
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188
Q

eusthenopteron:

A

principles of a sarcotergian fish head

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189
Q

endochondral

A

capsules around nose and inner ear (no hearing)

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190
Q

the choana

A

-two nostrils in a fish (osteithycan even in placoderms = a crown gnathstme feature
-in tetrapods there is only 1 nostril outside the china is the second posterior nostril in fish

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191
Q

evolution of teh choanae

A

1)inwards motion of the posterior nostril
2)freeing the neck dissolution of the head-shoulder junction in the dermal armour

loss of dermal cheek bones in transistor from fish
3)hearing - hyomandibula = stapes + tympanic membrane hearing (acanthostega one of the first few tetrapods)

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192
Q

evolution of choanae cotinued

A

-fish hyomandbula bone turns into tetrapods stapes single hearing bone of all tetrapods establishing new connection in inner ear fenestra ovalis

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193
Q

assembly of the hand 8 fingers

A

-compariosn between extra tetrapods would suggest that the ancestors all had 5 fingers(digits) there were digits before animals went on land and we have footprints

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194
Q

key early steps of tetrapod limb and girdle evolution

A

gradual loss of dermal body armour in head and neck region

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195
Q

how can one reconstruct ancient climates

A

count the number of stomata in fossil plants

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196
Q

it is the biosphere that drove down atmospheric CO2 levels into the ground

A

oceanic algae - photosynthesis - deposition

biominerilization

forest ecosystems

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197
Q

Amniote phylogeny climate

A

firm transition onto land happened within the amniotes but not in teh early amniotes : eggs on land with egg shells and amnions protecting embryos against drying out

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198
Q

tetrapod tree

A

tetrapodmorphs (tetrapod stem group)

some are aquatic still;; and some are terrestrial

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199
Q

aquatic vs terrestrial lifestyle does not map to tetrapods

A

it emerged (and got lost) repeatedly in the tetrapod crown groups

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200
Q

mixed early amniote lifestyles

A

amphibious/terrestrial/aquatic

early amniotes had juveniles with gills - like tadpoles

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201
Q

tetrapods are terrestrial or

A

amphibious

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202
Q

large subdivisions of amniotes

A

one group is reptiles and teh other is thesnapsids

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203
Q

amniotes developed scaly skin because

A

change of dominant climate

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204
Q

where did the first amniotes emerge

A

in carboniferous forests around equator (warm and wet)

early tetrapods were living in high CO2 atmosphere so very different periods

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205
Q

amniote hearing system

A

all can hear

hair cells are overlaying little particles called oltoconia
pectoral membrane vibrates allowing hearing to occur

within cochlear (tonotopic) different hairs different frequencies

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206
Q

mechanosensory cells themselves go back to common ancestry of choanaflagellates and metazoans

A

so major evolutionary transformation happened in the 3D configuration of these mechanosensory cells

207
Q

hearing system has three cannals

A

the semicircular canals they can feel flow of water coming in sharks
every motion of head moves liquid in inner ear (inertia)
look at where they evolved one semicircular canal

in the gnathostomes there are three semicircular canals

208
Q

fish hyomandibula bone turns into tetrapod stapes

A

single hearing bone of all tetrapods establishing new connection to the inner ear

209
Q

when people looked at early amniote

A

teeth inserted into jaw making it more stable

VERY SMALL

210
Q

otic notch for tympanic membrane (eardrum) had evolved in tetrapods

A

stem amniotes had lost hearing again! no eardrum or otic notch

211
Q

parareptiles have optic notch

A

again

212
Q

3 times independent evolution of inner ear hair cells and re-evikution of tympanic middle ears in ammnioes

A

synapsids, archosaurs and lepidosaurs

213
Q

basal papila becomes

A

cochlear

214
Q

new forms of teeth amniotes

A

every osteo and placoderm has teeth so no novelty but thecodonty

215
Q

thecodonty

A

teeth get embedded into/surrounded by alveolar bone: replacement teeth true heterodonty (different types of teeth in mouth) molariform vs incisiform teeth

216
Q

vertebrae evolution across amniotes

A

number of vertebrae stays same in mammals but not amniotes and this comes about by how genes

217
Q

shifts in sizes of hot genes expression domains changes number of vertebrae a given type

A

therefore diversity

218
Q

novelties of metabolism in amniotes

A

stepwise miniaturisation of RBC in teh amniotes enabled higher degree of oxygen transport and metabolism = homeothermy

further miniaturisation by nuclear loss : probably cynodont synapsids

219
Q

amniotes have complex lungs

A

various chamber systems

220
Q

base of ammonites have scales

A

amphibian skin has almost no keratin and breathe through skin but reptiles have have thick layer of keratin and pigment cells that allow chameleons to change its colours

221
Q

archosaurs

A

large sinuses (yellow blue)

fill the skull of archosaurs

allows light weight structures

all archosaurs have pneumatized bones permit low-weight large sizes part of bigger air sac systems

222
Q

endothermy in amniotes

A

more elaborate in theropod dinosaurs ; birds

enabled nocturnal lifestyle

223
Q

social lifestyle in burrows of diapsid amniotes

A

able to deal with high CO2 levels in enclosed spaces

224
Q

modifications of pentadactyl

A

some fingers become invisible and disappear can turn entire fingers into wings

225
Q

hair teeth and feathers develop the same

A

placed develops into bud then morphogenesis and adult organ

226
Q

differences between amniotes and synapsids

A

Skull Structure: Another key difference is seen in their skull structure. Synapsids have a single temporal opening (temporal fenestra) behind the eye socket on each side of the skull. In contrast, amniotes have two temporal openings, known as diapsids. This difference in skull structure is crucial for understanding the evolutionary relationships between various groups of reptiles and mammals.

DIFFERNCE in lower jaw as one has hinge

227
Q

sauria, diapsids diversification in

A

permian happened deep in early carbonifierous

228
Q

permian period

A

fossil became as big as elephants towards end

229
Q

key taxonomic groups of synapsids

A

cynodonts

therapsids = features evolved over time formation of hard palate

230
Q

palates evolved many times independently and

A

got lost again within the synapsids

231
Q

thinaxidon

A

key middle ear changes

232
Q

amniote glands are the organs of

A

breasts

233
Q

the Wilkes crater impact and the great dying 252.3 MYA

A

likely caused teh magma flows of teh Siberian trap system leading to the permotriassic catastrophe

bigger impact than the one that wiped out the dinos

234
Q

siberian trap

A

volcanic system eruption

235
Q

the great dying at the perm-triassic boundary

A

-massive volcanic activity extinguished within a maximum of 60,000 yrs more than 75% of all tetrapods

-90% of all marine reptiles
-it is assumed that sever hypercapnia is the key cause for this mass extinction

236
Q

resilience of synapsid ancestor against hypercapnia

A

may be teh basis of a fossorial lifestyle and eusociality (which creates lots of hypercapnia and hypoxia in small protective burrows) these historical conditions are resented in COPD patients

237
Q

loss of tympanic hearing in stem ammniotes brain fact of stapes

A

regain of hearing

238
Q

gauss reichert theory

A

which has proven entirely correct on fossil record 3 ossicles of the mammalian middle ear callus incus and stapes respond quite accurately to the jaw

239
Q

synapsid tree sows with teh ear

A

that the ear drum sits on lower jaw and moves lower to jaw to create vibrations

240
Q

the new synapsid ear drum will develop in the lower jaw

A

-lower jaw structure the same osteichythan configuration denture still the only tooth breaking bone and flat

241
Q

evolution of the dentary bone

A

elevation of bone at back

middle ear cavity hollowing out all outside of lower jaw

denture bone shape changes within cynodonts

242
Q

evolution of jaw joint

A

primary jaw joint ends up in middle ear

243
Q

trigemina ganglion

A

outside the ancient skull wall in amniote ancestrs

trigemina ganglion inside teh cynodonts/mammales

ancient palotoquadrate - neural crest fuses to skull and makes new wall on the outside of trigerminal ganglion

244
Q

mammalian evolution massive plant diversifications

A

synchronous to/followed by
1)flying insect (pterygotes evolution - silurian/devonian)
2)wing folding

245
Q

in carbiniforus

A

1)flying insect
2\0wing folding AND CATERPILLARS/LARVAE IN CARBINIFEROUS

246
Q

order of evolution to mammals

A

-tetrapods
-amniotes
-synapsids
-archosaur radiation
-small mammals

247
Q

carboniferous + permian

A

oxygen rich permitting high metabolism rates

248
Q

after the great fire phanerozoic

A

only burrowing animals survived

249
Q

changes in RBC

A

making them smaller and enucleating them

250
Q

species richness before and after PT catastrophe

A

after crisis small synapsids disappear therefore more resources for them

reptiles start growing after

251
Q

the nocturnal bottleneck in triassic/jurassic - losses and gains

A

massive insect diversification

become not nocturnal

252
Q

nocturnal dominance in ancestors of

A

mammalian and marsupial groups

253
Q

the nocturnal bottleneck in the triassic

A

loss of gadusol genes for UV sun protection

in the ancestry of mammals

what isn’t used gets lost

massive loss of opsin genes (visual losses)

254
Q

the longer the gestation time

A

usually the bigger the animal the less it sleeps and the less energy it loses

255
Q

volume of the liver determines

A

the amount of heat produced

256
Q

surface of the skin

A

determines the loss of heat

257
Q

surface of lung

A

determines O2/CO2 exchange capacity : the metabolic rate in smaller animals

258
Q

synapsids and mmaliaforms retain nocturnal lifestyle

A

from amniotes

259
Q

plesiomorphy

A

he ancestral character state for a particular clade. This character state may change depending on the clade under consideration. For example, “has four legs” is plesiomorphic for the clade of terrestrial vertebrates, but “has two legs and two wings” is plesiomorphic for the clade of owls.

260
Q

synapsids and ammalianforms train nocturnal lifestyle which is detected by

A

the ear drum (tympanic) evolved at least 2 times independently within the ammniotes

261
Q

new inner ear of mammal evolution

A

hair cell types evolve in that nocturnal period a well

262
Q

the primary jaw joint ends up

A

in teh middle ear
in probainognathus we have two joints acting simultaneously

263
Q

enormous variety of mimicry amount butterflies/moths copying snakes

A

geeks birds etc …

264
Q

mammals significant increase in

A

encephalisation/cortical growth

265
Q

change in sensory modalities in therians

A

increase in auditory and somatosensory
cortex sizes in the nocturnal placental ancestors this trend gets lost again later

266
Q

cretaceous

A

living mammals in two major groups

-prototherians = duck billed lack a placenta lay eggs
-therians all other animals

small mammals coexisted with dinosaurs for millions of years mammals increased in size and number after the extinction of dinos

267
Q

virus protein capture enables placentalia

A

they invade layer then make placenta

268
Q

dawn of the hominis

A

Found in the sahel area (Sahara), shows that the earliest hominids were wide ranging across Africa – the impression one gets from the fossil record is that the story of hominin evolution is restricted to Eastern and Southern Africa.

269
Q

the hominid

A

Hominids = Great apes + gibbons
Hominins = after the split with Pan
Note positions of the Miocene apes – Dryopithecus, Sivapithecus

270
Q

Ardipithecus ramidus

A

5.8-4.4 Mya – shown as bipedal, would have stood 1.2M high.

271
Q

The Taung child

A

-was roundly rejected at the time as an ancestor of humans, because of low brain capacity
-could be the cradle of mankind (the first ‘missing link’ was java man found in 1894 by Dubois, which was later, and had a larger brain – more acceptable!!)

272
Q

The laetoli footprints

A

3.6 Mya – defnitive evidence of bipedalism, made by 3 hominins, 3rd stepping inside the prints of the 2nd.

273
Q

Lucy

A

Highly sexually dimorphic species. Hadar. Small brain – around 400cm3.

274
Q

Lucy was a climber and a walker

A

-discovered in Ethiopia
-Pelvis is Lucy has turned round to form a shallow support of the viscera of the body. Legs are still quite lateral – a bit of a waddle going on. Human pelvis is deeper, more bowl shaped, legs more anteriorly held
-Lucy would have been able to give birth to a baby with brain weight limited to 140-160g.

275
Q

less developed at birth linked to changes in life history

A

Less developed infants means more care required, longer development phase. We see a trend towards longevity and loss of fertility in adult life. Adaptation to improved care by grandparents – a social evolution. Life history can be inferred by dental development differences between humans and chimps – we see a shift towards a more human order.

276
Q

Upright gait is far more energy efficient….for standing upright

A

-Why stand up? Bipedalism and quadrapedalism are energetically similar. Unlikely to be an energy advantage initially.
-bipedalism is actually ancestral, knuckle walking in chimps a derived trait. Increased ranging on the ground may then have selected for the associated anatomical changes. Certainly savannahs were expanding at this time.

277
Q

features of robust morphology

A

Australopithecine trend towards heavier grinding with stronger muscle attachments, and a flattening and deepening of the face.

278
Q

Hominins evolved during a changing climate

A

Robustus seems to have been better adapted to the savannah environment, the more gracile forms were better adapted to semi-wooded environments. Robustus persisted, while the genus Homo evolved from either the africanus or afarensis lineages.

279
Q

many hominid?

A

debate still about whether various lineages should be grouped together, and just represent a wide range of phenotypes. A common theme throughout all the anthropological evidence. Often groups do not neatly separate, but contain individuals with the odd trait associated with another. Reminiscent of gene frequencies in different populations.

280
Q

Broad trend to increasing brain capacity

A

Encephalization quotients – increased brain size for a given body weight over time.

281
Q

Cultural evolution: stone traditions

A

Oldowan started with Australopithecines 2.5 Mya, and persisted for a million years. The Acheulian industry, more complex, is associated with Homo erectus (but later erectus), beginning about 1.7 Mya.

282
Q

Homo habilis: home maker…..one or two species?

A

Many think that the morphological distance between Australopithecus and Homo erectus is too narrow to accommodate another species. Some argue that the dimorphism observed may actually be two species, H. rudolfensis being the other. Unresolved.
Note that some argue that Homo sapiens comes directly from H. habilis, and H erectus is a side branch entirely.

283
Q

Why the enlarging brain trend?

A

-male hunting
-expensive tissue hypothesis
-scavenging
-plant use
-no one really knows probably many factors involved

284
Q

Java man the first missing link

A

Ernst Haeckel coined the term Pithecanthropus (ape man) from Darwin’s prediction of a missing link. Eugene Dubois found this missing link in Java in 1894, and termed it Pithecanthropus. Now considered H. erectus, but he rejected that resolutely, and insisted it was a gibbon (he thought gibbons were the missing link).

285
Q

H. erectus expansion into SE Asia

A

Dtaes now suggest that H. erectus reached Java as much as 1.7 Mya years ago, meaning a very early dispersal out of Africa.

286
Q

The enigma of Flores

A

Flores has H. erectus by 800 Kya, which would have required seafaring, which is incredible in itself. The ‘hobbit’ later on only has a brain volume of 417cc – same as early Australopithecines, human neonate of a chimpanzee! Doesn’t add up yet – they should not be cognitively capable of seafaring.

287
Q

More SE Asian hominins

A

Homo luzonensis, 67,000 years, oldest Homo in Phillipines. Tooth morphometrics place it as distinct from archaic humans, modern humans, erectus and floresiensis, although finger bones (below) suggest resemblance to Australopithecus.

288
Q

divergence of African and asian H erectus

A

Oldest African H. erectus dates from 1.89-1.95 Mya from Koobi Fora in E Africa – older than Asian.

Mixture of traits – curious thing is H. erectus in regions show traits that exist to this day in modern populations, such as high cheek bones in East Asian populations. Suggests some kind of continuity, but would also require parallel evolution around the world.

289
Q

Asian H. erectus lacked Acheulian industry

A

Acheulian industry begins 1.5Mya with H. erectus in Africa, Asian H. erectus does not have this, which suggests it left before, which fits with the Java dates. Which means they left Africa early, which may explain some of the primitive traits such as sagittal keel.

290
Q

Turkana boy

A

The most complete H. erectus skeleton (1.65Mya). Would have stood at 6 foot if had lived to maturity. Has modern body proportions. There is a trend in H. erectus for elongation of legs, and tall slim frame.

291
Q

locomotor evolution

A

Tall slim proportions there by 1.8 Mya in Homo erectus – long legs good for running. Surface area to volume ratio (shown in brackets) allows the loss of heat, sweating very efficient. Adapted to running long distances. H. erectus spread like a weed through the world in a generalist niche.

292
Q

Archaic humans

A

Hard to define group that sit between H. erectus and Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalis. Start appearing just over a million years ago

293
Q

Oldest modern Homo sapiens

A

315 KYRS OLD SHOWS THAT HOMO evolution was across the entire continent

294
Q

Oldest Homo sapiens

A

Morphometric analysis shows it to be like recent modern humans (RMH), but still in evolving. A. facial shape – already there B. endocranial shape, between archaic humans and erectus

295
Q

Modern Homo sapiens leaves Africa

A

177-194 Kyr ago, Misliya Cave, Levant. Tooth morphology shows sample to be modern human: grey modern humans; black Neanderthal; green early modern humans; violet Archaic humans (European)

296
Q

the invasion of the land by plants was really the invasion of the air

A

-dessication and support are the principal problems

-adapting to desiccation requires a cuticle, spores and seeds and vascular tissue

297
Q

Land plant =

A

=any photosynthetic eukaryote that can survive and sexually reproduce on land

298
Q

all land plants are

A

embryo-bytes = embryo bearing plants

299
Q

Embryophytes

A

have a true alternation of generations with MULTICELLULAR diploid and HAPLOID phases

300
Q

embryophyte lifecycle involves

A

1)dipole stage (sporophyte) which produces spores by MEIOSIS therefore haploid

2)spores leave the sporophyte and grow into different kind of plant known as gametophyte so plants have 2 sets of organisms which look nothing alike

3)Gameotophyte produce gametes by MITOSIS

301
Q

paraphyletic =

A

having multiple origins

302
Q

plants evolved from algae but algae are not

A

plants

303
Q

Alga is a term for multicellular organisms from a single cell

A

-leap to multicellularity occurred several times
-Algae emerged from primordial slime

304
Q

the most likely ancestor to embryophytess was in the charales

A

-shared dervivd characteristics
-photosynthetic pigments
-starch as food reserve
-flagella type on motile cells
-coelochates retain fertilised egg

305
Q

Charaphytes are algae most similar to

A

plants

306
Q

Embryophytes have an archegonium and multicellular sporophyte WHAT DOES THIS MEAN

A

Spores = adaptation to dry conditions

multicellular sporophyte = adaptation to air dispersal

307
Q

A choice of two directions for plants

A

become polikilohydric or amplification of sporophyte

308
Q

A choice of two directions for plants
better adapted for moist evironments than tracheophytes
Polikilohydric =
Moist environments

A

1)amplification of gameotophyte produce gametes and ensure fertilisation and maintain sporophyte
2)non-vascular
3)bryophytes (mosses liverwarts and hornworts)

309
Q

why do gametophytes need to be moisture hugging

A

they are motile games therefore are adapted to damp places

310
Q

A choice of two directions for plants
better adapted for dry environments than bryophytes
amplification of sporophyte =
dry environments

A

-vascular
-tracheophytes (ferns lycopods horsetails and seed plants)

311
Q

sporophyte

A

-disseminate meiospores in a terrestrial landscape wind is readily available and It favours height for dispersal therefore require vascularitissue (FICKS LAW OF DIFFUSION)

312
Q

Evidence of land plants 480-360 MYA

A

-in ordovician
-fossil spores with sporapollenin and cuticle sheets occur in 458 MYA in Libya

-cuticles and stomata = land adaptation disadvantage in water
-archegonium and sporopollenin walled spores
-vascular systems

313
Q

spores with trite markings are evidence of meiosis requiring a diploid progenitor

A

-COOKSONIA and RHYNIA show the sporophyte part of the sporophyte part of the plant

314
Q

earliest land fossil

A

-fungus 440 MYA

315
Q

Bryophytes are not monophyletic

A

-mosses have shared derived features with tracheophytes (by DNA and morphological features) actually have primitive vascular system

316
Q

Heterospory

A

In the Devonian vascular plants had sporophytes that freely shed spores in the air

-unisexual gameotphytes manfest as heterosporous

317
Q

plants that release spores =

A

pteridophytes

318
Q

Heterospory once gametophytes are seperated

A

into male and female makes sense to invest more energy into female egg hence these spores become larger

319
Q

why do heterospory which seems energy expensive

A

-increase energy in female gametophyte because maximum chances of successful fertilisation by making male spore more numerous

320
Q

heterospory is said to increase convergence

A

11 times (BATEMAN and Dimichele 1994)

321
Q

the logical progression of heterospory

A

increasing investment in megaspore causes reduction in megaspore number
-the difference in resource allocation between micro/megaspores follows a logical series which is invisible in fossils

-first there are sporangia become specialised producing only one or other of the spore types

322
Q

once sporangia become specialised ->

A

megaspore energy investment may increase

323
Q

seed habit - the next step after heterospory

A

-retain megaspore in megasporangium
-redude functional megaspores to 1
-retain megagametophyte
-modification of megasporangia to receive microspores
-modification of microspores to enable them to deliver sperm cells to eggs
-integument develops around megasporangia

324
Q

spermatophytes =

A

all seed plants

325
Q

gymnosperms =

A

first seed plants

326
Q

megagameotophyte became a parasitic organisms living in

A

sporophyte

327
Q

oldest progenitor to seed plants 385 MYA (mid Devonian)

A

the protogynosperm not technically seeds yet

328
Q

growing tall tracheids and lignophytes

A

-first modern tree up to 30m in height evolved in Devonian although oldest calixylon fossils are givetian

329
Q

archaeopteris had lateral buds which

A

allowed growth
bifacial cambium

lead to development of deeper root system

330
Q

Finds of archaeopteridales

A

-britain in centre where archaeopteridales have been found they became distributed worldwide

331
Q

movement up the plant: physics of growing tall

A

-root pressure = sugars and minerals secreted into xylem by root cells and Draw in water via osmosis

transpiration = tension-cohesion theory air danger

332
Q

lycopods developed into trees after the

A

carboniferous which restricted amounts of wood
archaeopteris success included the development of a bifacial cambium allowing intermediate growth

333
Q

convergence on tree habit

A

-made up of clubmoss trees
-plants have invented trees at least half a dozen times there are gymnosperm and angiosperm

334
Q

the late arrival of leaves with archeopteris in late devonian

A

-leaves were nt needed before the atmosphere was CO2 rich through most of the Devonian

335
Q

leaf evolution associated with falling

A

CO2 levels

336
Q

by the carboniferous plants had evolved most of their features

A

the trees were clubhouses and horsetails

337
Q

200 million years of non major innovations then angiosperm

A

appear

pollen is evidence

338
Q

evolution of angiosperms

A

-innovation of the flower led to an explosion in species numbers

flowers = isolating mechanisms (reproductive isolation)

339
Q

Rapid genome sizing in angiosperms

A

-during cretaceous ability to outcompete is suggested to be due to many hypotheses

-angiosperms developed leaves with smaller more numerous stomata

340
Q

oldest flower fossils circa

A

125 MYA

341
Q

parallel evolution of C4 in a cooling climate

A

-C4 physiology mechanism to increase CO2 concentration around Rubisco done by having CO2 fixed into 4C molecule therefore enabling CO2 to be delivered to chloroplasts

342
Q

Evolutionary trends convergence on cactus habit

A

-some are cacti and some are euphorbia

cacti thorns = modified leaves
euphorbia = modified branches

343
Q

evolutionary trends genome obesity

A

-many instances of polyploidy because they are simpler they can survive a doubled genome (happens under stress)

-polploids become diploids over time

344
Q

Floral evolution - protection to attraction Angiosperms have

A

smaller cells which means they have an increased density of leaf structure
-male and female parts evolve

345
Q

Fusion of carpels (syncarpy)

A

allows multiple fertilisation from a single pollination

346
Q

Petals thought to have arrived from teh sterile forms of flattened stamens which served as pollen sources but also protection

A

as pollen sources but also protection

347
Q

Differences between dicotyledons and monocotyledons

A

-differences in the numbers of petals
monocots tend to have less complex leaf structures

348
Q

dicots are at the base of the

A

angiosperms

349
Q

monocots are

A

the monophyletic group

350
Q

base of dicots there are still

A

not true petal formations

351
Q

basic anatomy of flower is described in

A

whorls

352
Q

whorls sit on

A

recepticale

353
Q

Honma and Goto 2001

A

-Whorls are dictated by MADS genes

-PI and AP3 upregulated produces petals instead of leaves,

upregulation of Ag as well makes everything a stamen.

354
Q

MADs genes are the HOX genes of

A

plants

355
Q

Angiosperm evolution is tied to teh evolution of MADS genes

A

-minichromosome maintenance ,1, Agamous(Ag), Defciens (Def), Serum response factor(SRF)
-evolved from topoisomerase
-few genes in animals , 20 in mosses >100 in angiosperms
-transcription factors- bind to CArG boxes

356
Q

MADs genes are basically

A

transcription factors
they have proliferated a lot

357
Q

Amino acid sequence large letters mean that

A

all amino acids have that letter
motifs become very visible

358
Q

two types of MADs genes
TypE 1

A

-Malpha, M beta and M gamma
-1 - 2 exons
faster birth and death rate
more small scale duplications

359
Q

Two types of MADS genes

type 2

A

sub types = MIKC^c, MIKC*

-7 exons
-lower birth/death rate
more ofte retained after genome duplications

360
Q

heterostyly

A

the condition (e.g. in primroses) of having styles of different lengths relative to the stamens in the flowers of different individual plants, to reduce self-fertilization.

361
Q

heteroanthy

A

In this length of filaments and styles in a flower are different. If the styles are of different lengths it is called heterostyly while if the stamens are of different lengths it is called heteroanthy.

362
Q

three ways to classify fruits

A

-developmental organ of the fruit body in relation to inflorescence structure and pistil number
-true or accessory are they dervied from the ovary wall or other tissue
-morphological types

363
Q

Austrolopithecus

A

Australopithecus is a genus of early hominins that existed in Africa during the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene. The genera Homo, Paranthropus, and Kenyanthropus evolved from some Australopithecus species.

364
Q

Plant domestication syndrome

A

increase grain size
loss of seed dispersal
loss of photoperiod sensitivity
architectural changes
synchronicity of development

365
Q

cooksonia and hostinella

A

must be one common ancestor

366
Q

the red list

A

aims to pinpoint endangered species

only 3% of known species have been assessed

367
Q

ow many species on red list

A

16000

368
Q

cause of background extinction

A

-result of biotic interactions (ecological and evolutionary, gradually changing climates landscapes and in teh case of small populations CHANCE

369
Q

inbreeding depression

A

-mutation load
-less fit
-downward spiral

370
Q

genetic consequences of falling populations

A

-small fragmented isolated populations
-reduced N
-reduced adaptabilitty

371
Q

extinction within a region

A

-following a perturbation ,rate at which species form increases, then levels off or even decreases as all of the ecolgical niches become filled
-at the same time, extinction rates continue to rise as species are forced into ever more narrow waysof life
-system reaches equlibrium

372
Q

species restricted to marginal habitats

A

-habitat has deteriorated
-can die of stravation or predation
-results in inbreeding

373
Q

genetic drift in small populations can lead to

A

extinction

374
Q

magnitude of background extinction

A

-99% of all species that have ever existed on earth are now gone
-based on fossil record most species exist for 4-22 million years

375
Q

background extinction

A

-typically continuous species in a relatively short period of geological time can also be caused by environemntal or biological factors

376
Q

mass extinction

A

-loss of numerous species in a relatively short period of geological time can also be caused by environmental or biological factprs

377
Q

how do you measure extinction rates

A

-extinctions per million species year

E/MSY

-fossils
-pollen cores
-written records

378
Q

ordovician/silurian

A

-cold period
-falls in CO2 due to weathering
-loss of marine species
-climate change

379
Q

devonian extinction

A

-359 MYA - likely two phases
-no single cause

380
Q

permian (the great dying)

A

-250 mya
-two phases = long period

381
Q

triassic extinction

A

-200 mya
-poorly understood reasons
-major loss of reptiles, synapsids and conodonts

382
Q

cretaceous- k/t event

A

-65 mya

causes asteroid, volcanic, sea level fall and oceanic acidification

383
Q

volcanic activity

A

-deccan traps
-65 mya
-massive rise in CO2

384
Q

carbon cycle and the triassic extinction

A

-can model the carbon cycle for the planet
-volcanic eruptions heated coal - massively increasing CO2 levels

385
Q

6th extinction

A

-cause habitat destruction
-cause global warming

386
Q

anthropogenic input is increasing

A

background rates and could be contributing to mass extinction

387
Q

importance of plants to humans

A

-environment
-oxygen
-food
-chemicals
-biofuel
-detoxification

388
Q

how many people are undernourished

A

870 million

389
Q

global agriculture by 2050 will need to increase by to meet demands

A

60-110%

390
Q

consequences of climate change

A

-crop loss due to extreme weathering
-changes in rainfall patterns
-decrease crop yield by 50% in next 35 years

391
Q

enormous progress has been made since 1950

A

the green revolution saved millions of lives from famine
-initiated by norman borlaug

392
Q

dwarf plants and yield

A

-less resources allocated to stem
more to grain development

393
Q

photoperiod insensitive crops

A

-in many plants flowering time is determined by seasonal changes in daylength or photoperiod
-photoperiod-insensitive crops can be planted at any time of the year
-serveral harvest cycles are possible

394
Q

new strategies to ensure food security

A

-reduction in food waste
- change in consumer behaviour
-changes in farming practices
-improvement of crop cultivars

395
Q

over 1/3 of food produced

A

is wasted

396
Q

meat consumption is bad for environment because

A

takes up land

397
Q

use of cover crops

A

-fast growing annuals
-planted between cash crops to protect and improve teh soil

398
Q

benefits of cover crops

A

+reduce erosion
+reduce leaching of N
+green manure
+more on ppt

399
Q

benefits of tillage

A

-control weeds
-loosens teh soil
-dries out the soil

400
Q

benefits of conservation tillage

A

-reduce soil erosion
-conserve water
-reduce labor and time cost

401
Q

agroforestry

A

trees combined with agriculture

402
Q

precision farming

A

-using robots to sow seed, identify and exterminate weeds

403
Q

-modern crop improvement is based on genetics

A

-marker assisted breeding
-transgenic technology
-gene editing

404
Q

plant cells are totipotent

A

-mature plant cells can be induced to give rise to a whole new plant
-most differentiated cells retain this inability

405
Q

primary metabolites

A

-carbohydrates
-amino acids
-fatty acids
-cytochromes
-chlorophylls
-intermediates of metabolic pathway

406
Q

secondary metabolites

A

-many are involved in plant defences against herbivores or pathogens
huge diversity
-some are toxic

407
Q

non-vascular plants do not have true

A

leaves

408
Q

vascular tissue came first during evolution

A

-400 mya
-insects and tetrapods were just beginning to colonise land
-early land plants were composed of bifurcating or branching photosynthetic stems

409
Q

leaves are derived from modified branches

A

-providing an increased SA for light and CO2 uptake

410
Q

rubisco is very ineffcient

A

-slow catalytic activity
-CO2 and O2 compete for the active site of rubisco

411
Q

when O2 binds to rubisco instead of CO2

A

wasteful reaction (photorespiration)

412
Q

CO2 pumps

A

-in algae and cyanobacteria
-driven by ATP from light reactions
-elevate CO2 in teh cytoplasm
-allows rubisco to favour CO2 over oxygen

413
Q

modifications of the Calvin cycle

A

-C4 photosynthesis concentrates CO2 in cells where the Calvin cycle takes place
-CAM also acts to concentrate CO2 and minimises water loss

414
Q

PUMPs needed in aquatic environments

A

because CO2 is way below saturation levels

415
Q

C4 photosynthesis

A

requires a different cellular organization in leaves

KRANZ ANAYTOMY

416
Q

C4 photosynthesis

A

-CO2 is fixed by PEP carboxylase in mesophyll cells

equation on ppt

417
Q

Malate is transported from

A

malate is transported from mesophyll cells to bundle sheath cells

418
Q

advantages of C4 synthesis

A

-PEP-case is saturated at atmospheric levels of CO2
-ensures iptimal rate of carbon fixation
-CO2 concentration is elevated in bundle sheath cells

419
Q

crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)

A

found in crassulaceae, cacti, bromeliads
-seperation of rubisco, PEPC activity is temporal

420
Q

the primary root is formed during embryogeneisis

A

-root present when the plant emerges out of the seed is

421
Q

lateral roots are formed by branching

A

from teh primary root

422
Q

roots have complex cellular structures

A

-root hairs develop as protuberances from epidermal cells
-they increase the SA for the absorption of water

423
Q

Rhizoids

A

single cell filaments

424
Q

asexual reproduction in roots

A

some roots form adventitious buds that develop into above ground shoots
-can form horizontal shoots
-roots can form on some fallen leaves

425
Q

the rhizosphere contains complex microbial communities

A

that affect the growth of teh plant host

426
Q

oxygen inhibits

A

nitrogenase actvity

427
Q

mycorrhizae =

A

mutualistic interactions with fungi

428
Q

phosphobacteria solubilize

A

teh insoluble phosphorus and converts it into available form

429
Q

seeds are the _________ food source

A

primary

430
Q

seed labelled diagram

A

-seed coat is outer layer
-embryo is sac in the middle
-at bottom of seed is the food store

431
Q

seeds are designed for survival

A

-seeds have low moisture content and almost no metabolic actvity
-they can survive extreme conditions (dehydration/cold/heat/digestion by animals)
-they can persist in the soil for many years UNTIL CONDITIONS BECOME FAVOURABLE

432
Q

seeds are designed to maximise dispersal

A

-forceful ejection
-wind dispersal (wings and plumes)
-water dispersal
-dispersal by animals by clinging with hooks and barbs or being sticky

433
Q

diploid goes through meiosis becomes

A

haploid

434
Q

in bryophytes (non-vascular plants) the the dominant form is

A

gametophytes

435
Q

in ferns (pterudiohytes) the dominant form is

A

sporophyte

436
Q

in seed plants (angiosperms and gymnosperms) teh dominant form is is

A

the sporophyte (2N)

437
Q

the female gametophyte (embryo sac) develops within the

A

ovary

438
Q

the male gametophyte (pollen) develops within the

A

anthers

439
Q

the mother cells in teh pollen sac are parental tissue (2N) they divide by meiosis to give rise to tetrads of microspores which divides into

A

a vegetative cell and a generative cell this cell has a nucleus which divides into two further male gametes and all three nuclei ,ove down the pollen tube but teh vegatative nucleus degenerates

440
Q

bryophytes and pteridophytes have

A

swimming sperm
-rely on moist environments for sexual reproduction

441
Q

in flowering plants (angiosperms) teh male nucleus is delivered to the ovule by

A

pollen tubes - no need for moisture

442
Q

the endosperm develops as a

A

storage organ

-in arabdopsis it is used up during seed formation to provide energy for development of the embryo

443
Q

the mature seeds composed of 3 different genotypes

A

-embryo (2N) = contains predetermined cells, tissues and organs
-endosperm (3N) = contains starch, lipids and or protein reserves
-seed coat or testa (2N , maternal tissue) = barrier that protects the embryo

444
Q

monocot seeds

A

seed with a single cotyledon

-seed reserves are stored in the endosperm

445
Q

dicot seeds

A

-seed with two cotyledons, endosperms reduced during evolution
-seed reserves are stored in fleshy cotyledons

446
Q

3 stages of seed development

A

-embryogenesis
-maturation
-dessication

447
Q

during the maturation process plants translocate sugars from teh leaves to seeds for storage

A

as starch or fatty acids

448
Q

the seed becomes dormant prior to

A

desiccation

-deeply dormant can’t germinate even in suitable conditions

449
Q

types of seed dormacy

A

-physical/seed coat dormancy = impermeable seed coat preventing seed imbibition and embryo unabe to exit a tough seed coat
-physiological = immature embryos, plant hormones

450
Q

how is dormancy lifted

A

-time
-favourable environmental conditions (water, light temp and nutrients
-seeds can re-enter dormancy if conditions become unfavourable

451
Q

seed reserves are mobilised during

A

germination which is required to support seedling growth

452
Q

mobilisation of endosperm reserves is controlled by

A

gibberellin hormones

453
Q

understanding the control of germination is important

A

for successful crops
-obtain good germination rates
-avoids pre-harvest sprouting

454
Q

basic seed enhancement technologies

A

-quality control = sorting into defined seed size classes or sorting seed density
-polishing off or rubbing of seed coat which facilitates seen imbibition and promotes germination

455
Q

seed priming

A

-controlled imbibiton
-just long enough to allow plant to absorb nutrients
-not long enough to trigger germination
-then seeds are dehydrated for storage

456
Q

seed pelleting

A

used to alter seed shape, surface properties density and size to enable more precise seedplacement in the soil

457
Q

seed coating

A

allows addition of chemicals to protect teh seed from pathogens and/or to improve germination

458
Q

artificial seed

A

-somatic embryos are generated using cell culture techniques
-embryos packed into suitable gel matrix and covered with artificial seed coat
-allows clonal propagation of plants

459
Q

why did Darwin describe flowers an abominable mystery

A

-because huge levels of diversity
-didnt match slow theory of volution

460
Q

wind pollinated compared to insect pollinate flowers are likely to be

A

more dull and no scent

461
Q

insect/animal pollinated structure

A

-sticky or barbed pollen grains
-contain FODDER pollen infertile for food only

462
Q

pollen from wind-pollinated species is

A

lightweight, small and smooth

463
Q

getting pollinators attention

A

-bright colours - bees also see in UV
-nectar or hiney guides to tell insect where togo
-aromas can be carrion-like or dung-like

464
Q

specialised pollination strategies - entrapment

A

-water lily look on good notes

465
Q

mimicry for pollination strategy

A

look like female wasps can even smell like them

466
Q

some plants shoot their shot

A

trigger plant will shoot its pollen at teh insect 15 milliseconds after its triggered

467
Q

coevolution

A

interactions between two different species act as selective forces on each other resulting in adaptations that increases their interdependency

468
Q

cells in each ring know their fate because of their activity of teh ABC

A

homeotic genes

469
Q

CYCLODIA gene

A

expressed asymmetrically in developing flower meristems and buds only in dorsal region

470
Q

photoperiodism

A

teh ability to detect changes in day length enables the plant to measure the passing of the seasons and to coordinate aspects of its developemnt to particular times of the year when the conditions are favourable

471
Q

nightbreaks inhibit flowering

A

because plants measure the length of DARKNESS

472
Q

what is a fruit

A

the seed-bearing structure formed after flowering

473
Q

TRUE FRUIT

A

-ovaries expand become fleshy and receptacle is static

474
Q

false fruit

A

-ovaries are small and dry forming achenes receptacle expands

475
Q

apple is a false furit

A

ovary is retained as teh core receptacle expands and becomes fleshy ovules become the seed

476
Q

fruit ripening

A

a series of metabolic and physiological changes in teh fruit to promote seed dispersal]

477
Q

controlled atmosphere storage of

A

climacteric fruits
-low temperature
-low O2 reduced respiration
-high CO2

478
Q

controlled atmosphere storage of

A

climacteric fruits
-low temperature
-low O2 reduced respiration
-high CO2

479
Q

ethylene absorbers

A

use granules to absorb ethylene in cold storage rooms, firmness colr and quality of produce are maintained so reducing waste

480
Q

function of fruit

A

-protect the seed during development (embryogenesis)
-seed dispersal - a huge range of mechanisms have evolved using adaptations of various tissues of the flower

481
Q

some plants are serotinous

A

= only disperse seeds in response to environmental stimulus

482
Q

meristematic and callus cells are

A

totipotent

483
Q

de-differentiation

A

reversion of a differentiated cell to an earlier developmental stage

484
Q

what plant hormone controls grwoth of axillary buds

A

Auxin

485
Q

when a plant is wounded the cells may

A

de-differentiate and bcome callus cells

486
Q

callus formation occurs due to the hormones

A

auxin and cytokinin

487
Q

plant hormones stimulate cell division and differentiation

A

when a mixture of cytokinin + auxin is applied to callus cells either a root or a shoot will develop depending upon which hormone is higher concentration
-auxins for root development and cytokinin for shoot development

488
Q

micropropagation

A

-all regenerated material are clones so very uniform and predicatable growth
-large scale and rapid multiplication of high value or rare plant material
-allows for continous all year round production
-tissue culture is sterile so no bacteria or insect pathogens

489
Q

somatic embroyos

A

-plant callus can be reprogrammed to form embryo like structures

490
Q

artificial seeds

A

-made from somatic embryos or shoot buds

491
Q

in vitro breeding interspecific crpsses

A

-plant breeders use protoplast fusion to cross two sexually incompatible species
-have no cell wlalls

492
Q

creation of GM plants

A

disarmed vectors do not produce tumours can be used to regenerate normal plants containing the foreign gene

493
Q

binary vector system (two plasmids)

A

-a modified Ti plasmid which has teh air genes required for mobilization and transfer to the plant
-teh binary vector contains only T-DNA right and left border sequences either side of a polylinker for insertion of a foreign gene and a selectable marker

494
Q

number of leaves and turns is usually

A

fibonacci. sequence
2/5 = five leaves in two turns

495
Q

vernalisation =

A

defined acquisition or acceleration of teh ability to flower by a period of cold

496
Q

vernalisation indces epigenetic changes in FLC gene

A

silencing

497
Q

how does vernalisation silence genes

A

stable changes in chromatin structure

498
Q

roots are more sensitive to than shoots to

A

auxin

499
Q

photoreversable response

A

effects of red light pulse can be reversed by immediate exposure to far red

500
Q

phytochrome is a photoreversable molecule

A

exits in two forms look on ppt plant responses slide 32

501
Q

phytochrome undersgoes a conformational change

A

Pr to Pfr changes its absorption maxima

502
Q

phytochrome is involved in photoperiodic response

A

fight for light
-stem elongation or accelerated flowering when red light detected becomes far-red

503
Q

phytochrome is involved in photoperiodic response

A

fight for light
-stem elongation or accelerated flowering when red light detected becomes far-red

504
Q

the tragedy of the commons

A

teh depletion of a shared resource by individuals acting independently and rationally according to each ones self interest despite teh fact that depleting this resoyurce goes against long term benefits

505
Q

plant siblings can

A

recognise each other

506
Q

population density fo india and china

A

1.38 billion people Indias population is behind chinas but 1/3 of chinas total land area

507
Q

what is stress?

A

-external conditions that adversely affect growth, development and/or productvity
-biotic stress = imposed by other organisms
-abiotic stress = arising from an excess or deficiecy in the physical or chemical environment

508
Q

heat stress and how to overcome it

A

stomatal behaviour helps mitigate heat stress

509
Q

relationship between temperature and stomatal behaviour is complex

A

optimal temperatures = optimal envaporative cooling
-maximal yields and seed fertility
-extreme highs =if water is available stomatal conductivity (gs) increases
-decreased gs is a water saving strategy
-reduced seed fertility

510
Q

mechanisms of salinity tolerance

A

-rapid onset of osmotic stress
-slow onset of ionic stress

511
Q

quinoa is a facultative halophyte with nutrient rich seeds

A

-evolved in andes
-bladder cells in leaves and stems (specialised trichomes)
-sequesters Na in vacuoles reduced stomatal aperture

512
Q

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a major stress hormone

A

-many similarities in biochemical/metabolic responses to drought cold and salt stress
-other plant processes like dessication of plant tissues (seed maturation)

513
Q

pleitropic =

A

having multiple often unrelated effects

Summer exams (6 decks)

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