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BIOL1011 unit 2 & 3 > animal biology (unit 3) > Flashcards

animal biology (unit 3) Flashcards

1
Q

what defines an animal?

A

heterotrophs (no chlorophyll/chloroplasts)
multicellular
no cell walls
capable of movement (at some stage of life)
have HOX (regulatory) genes

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2
Q

what necessary functions do animals carry out?

A

reproduction
growth and development
maintaining water and solute concentrations
support and movement
coordination of body functions
transporting matter and energy
gas exchange
protection from environment and pathogens

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3
Q

what is the organization hierarchy (from smallest to biggest)

A

molecules
organelles
cells
tissues
organs
organ systems
organisms

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4
Q

how is structure related to function?

A

physical and chemical structure influences interactions with other structures and therefor function

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5
Q

what are functional tradeoffs?

A

specializing for one function limits the structure’s ability to perform another function - it is impossible to optimize for all parameters

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6
Q

what is an example of functional tradeoffs?

A

cartilage is flexible but not as strong, bone is much stronger, but inflexible

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7
Q

what are fusiform bodies?

A

banana shapes (grey seal) that reduce drag and has blubber to keep them warm

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8
Q

what is an emergent property?

A

a property of an organizational level that the lower levels does not posses
example: something organs can do but not tissue

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9
Q

what is the only system that does not exchange with external environment?

A

circulatory system

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10
Q

what is the main function of the endocrine and nervous system?

A

respond to stimuli and coordinate body activities

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11
Q

what coordinates responses in the body?

A

chemical and/or electrical signaling

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12
Q

what is homeostasis?

A

the maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment (minimizes the effect of external changes internal fluctuations)

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13
Q

why is homeostasis important?

A

cells have conditions/environment that is optimal for function

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14
Q

what is negative feedback?

A

control mechanism where the response opposes the original stimulus

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15
Q

what is positive feedback?

A

a control mechanism where the response reinforces the original stimulus

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16
Q

what type of feedback does homeostasis rely on?

A

negative feedback

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17
Q

what are set points?

A

the normal ranges of physiological parameters

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18
Q

when do set points change?

A

puberty
menstrual cycle
circadian rhythm
acclimatization

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19
Q

how do animals obtain/store energy?

A

obtain chemical energy and molecular building blocks from food and convert it to ATP to use for cellular work

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20
Q

what are resource trade-offs?

A

choosing to allocate resources to one function at the expense of the other (wound healing vs egg production)

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21
Q

what is the homeostasis cycle?

A

stimulus -> sensor -> control center -> response

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22
Q

what is acclimatization?

A

becoming accustomed to new conditons

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23
Q

what is adipose tissue?

A

body fat

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24
Q

what is an apical surface?

A

the edge of epithelial tissue that faces the lumen or external environment

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25
Q

what is basal surface?

A

the edge of epithelial tissue that is next to the basement membrane

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26
Q

what is epithelial tissue?

A

form the covering of all body surfaces, line body cavities, hollow organs, and are major tissues in glands

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27
Q

what is interstitial fluid?

A

fluid found in the spaces around the cells

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28
Q

what is the extracellular matrix?

A

a network of proteins and molecules that support cells and tissues

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29
Q

what is a model organism?

A

used to study development of animals since they have similar structurs/mechanisms

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30
Q

what are two common model organisms?

A

frogs and sea urchins

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31
Q

what is the basic fertilization cycle?

A

meiosis produces gametes, which fertilize and become a zygote then goes through mitosis to become a multicellular adult then performs meiosis to produce more gametes

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32
Q

what is the importance of the egg cytoplasm?

A

contains many proteins and mRNA that is essential to early development

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33
Q

what is the acrosome?

A

part of the sperm that contains hydrolytic enzymes to digest through egg

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34
Q

how do sperm bind to egg?

A

the sperm-binding receptor has the same species of ligand as the sperm

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35
Q

what are the steps of fertilization?

A

contact with the jelly coat triggers acrosomal reaction
surface proteins on acrosomal process bind to receptors on egg cell membrane
plasma membranes fuse and trigger fast block to polyspermy
sperm nucleus enter and cortical reaction causes slow block to polyspermy
sperm and egg nuclei fuse to form diploid nucleus of the zygote

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36
Q

what is the acrosomal reaction?

A

acrosome membrane fused with sperm membrane and releases enzymes so sperm can move into the egg

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37
Q

what happens when acrosome binds to egg?

A

acrosomal process elongates and contact is made with the sperm binding receptors and they are able to bind

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38
Q

what is polyspermy?

A

when multiple sperm enter the egg

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39
Q

what would polyspermy fuck up?

A

balance of maternal/paternal chromosomes (only thing the sperm contributes) and interfere with normal zygote development

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40
Q

what is the fast block to polyspermy?

A

a change in the membrane to stop additional sperm from binding (this is temporary)

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41
Q

what is the slow block to polyspermy?

A

molecules in cortical granules clip off receptor molecules
molecules in cortical granules harden vitelline layer
changes in osmatic pressure to draw water into perivitelline space

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42
Q

what is the cortical reaction?

A

contents of the cortical granules being expelled from the egg

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43
Q

what is the fertilization envelope?

A

a physical and chemical barrier that separates the zygote from extra sperm

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44
Q

what is cleavage?

A

rapid cell division with little growth of individual cells (no G1 or G2 phases)

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45
Q

what does cleavage accomplish?

A

it is the process by which a zygote becomes multicellular

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46
Q

what is a blastula?

A

a hollow ball of cells with a fluid filled cavity called the blastocoel (what is produced by cleavage)

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47
Q

what is differential gene expression?

A

the expression of different genes (depending on location and development of cells) which leads to the production of different proteins which changes the structure and behavior of the cell

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48
Q

what determines what gene a cell will express?

A

cytoplasmic determinants (signal from within cell) and inductive signals (signal from outside cell)

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49
Q

what are cyoplasmic determinants and how do they create diffference in gene expression?

A

molecules within a cell that regulate gene expression and can be differently distributed to daughter cells resulting in different gene expression

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50
Q

what are inductive signals and how do they create differnce in gene expression?

A

molecules that create signals to change gene expression that create differences based on where cells are located

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51
Q

what is morphogenesis?

A

the rearrangement of cells or sheets of cells in the embryo

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52
Q

what is gastrulation?

A

developmental stage when three germ layers are established and basic body plan is set up

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53
Q

what is organogenesis?

A

stage in development where the formation of the organs occurs(ex: nuerulation is the formation of the nervous sysem)

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54
Q

what are the stages of gastrulation?

A

cells in the vegetal hemisphere push inwards
outer cells (future endoderm and mesoderm) roll inward
blastocoel collapses and new cavity (archenteron - primitive asshole) is formed
cells at animal pole (future ectoderm) spread over outer surface

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55
Q

how is morphogenesis achieved?

A

through changes in cell position, shape, or survival (including apoptosis) lead to change in tissue as a whole

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56
Q

what is a neural plate?

A

structure with cells linked together by junctional complexes

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57
Q

what is the neural tube?

A

the developing brain and spine

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58
Q

what is neurulation?

A

the formation and shaping of the neural plate

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59
Q

what is perivitelline space?

A

space between the membrane of an egg and surrounding membranous structure

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60
Q

what is a cortical granule?

A

membrane bound organelles located in the cortex of unfertilized egg

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61
Q

what is the vitelline layer?

A

the transparent layer in an egg that is responsible for protein binding during fertilization

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62
Q

what is the jelly coat?

A

the gelatinous layer that surrounds the egg and releases chemicals to activate and guide sperms to egg

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63
Q

which systems are responsible for communication and coordinating the body?

A

nervous and endocrine

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64
Q

what is information flow within the body?

A

chemical and/or electrical signaling between cells

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65
Q

what are the three types of skeletal systems?

A

hydrostatic skeleton (fluid held under pressure in a close body compartment)
endoskeleton (hardened internal skeleton)
exoskeleton (hardened external skeleton)

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66
Q

how do hydrostatic skeletons move?

A

muscles (both longitudinal (extend) and circular (contract)) contract which changes the shape and exerts pressure on water that’s inside - this is peristaltic movement

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67
Q

what are examples of organisms that have exoskeletons?

A

mollusk shells, arthropods

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68
Q

what are some examples of endoskeletons?

A

sponges, echinoderms and chordates

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69
Q

what is peristaltic movement

A

longitudinal and circular muscles at contracting and relaxing

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70
Q

how do endo and exo skeletons generate movement?

A

using muscles attached to the hard parts of the skeleton

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71
Q

what are antagonist muscles?

A

pairs of muscles that must react opposite each other (one contracts and one relaxes) to create movement across a joint)

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72
Q

what is flexion and extension?

A

decreases in the angle across a joint (bending your arm) and increases in the angle of your joint (straightening your arm)

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73
Q

what is vertebrate skeletal muscle made up of?

A

muscle fibres cells made of up myofibrils made up of thin (actin) and thick (myosin) filaments

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74
Q

what is a special feature of muscle fibre cells?

A

they have many nuclei because they are created by multiple cells fusing together

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75
Q

what are myofibrils?

A

long fibrous organelles, can be thin or thick

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76
Q

what is a sacromere?

A

myosin and actin organized into units

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77
Q

what are thin filaments made up of?

A

two chains of actin molecules with myosin binding sites (on each actin molecule)

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78
Q

what are thick filaments made up of?

A

multiple myosin molecules with head exposed to bind with actin molecules (tail regions are bundled together)

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79
Q

what is the M-line?

A

the center of the sarcomere that thick filaments are anchored to

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80
Q

what is the Z-line?

A

the part of the sarcomere that the thin filaments are anchored to

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81
Q

what is the alternative name for skeletal muscles?

A

striated muscle - because it has a striped appearance caused by the alternation of thick and thin filaments in sarcomeres

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82
Q

how do the filaments interact during muscle contraction?

A

neither muscles change size, they just slide past each other (sliding filament theory of muscle contraction) the sarcomere contracts which causes the muscle contraction

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83
Q

how does the sarcomere contract?

A

myosin (motor protein) is able to convert ATP into movement - the thick filament pulls the thin filament towards the center

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84
Q

what is the difference between the low energy and high energy configurations of sacromere?

A

the myosin head moves away from its tail

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85
Q

what are the steps of myosin moving thin filaments?

A

the myosin head moves to its high energy configuration
the myosin attaches to the actin molecule (cross-bridge)
ATP -> ADP + P1
myosin moves back to low energy position (pulls actin with it)
myosin attaches to another ATP and releases actin
repeats

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86
Q

what two proteins are necessary for sacromeres?

A

tropomyosin and troponin

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87
Q

what does tropomyosin do?

A

prevents myosin heads from binding to actin molecules

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88
Q

what does troponin do?

A

binds to calcium (from message to contract) and is changed in shape to pull tropomyosin off myosin binding sites to allow sliding filament cycle

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89
Q

what is locomotion?

A

active travel from place to place

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90
Q

how does the endocrine system send signals?

A

with hormones through the blood
variety of speed and duration depending on hormone

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91
Q

how does the nervous system send signals?

A

with electric impulses and chemical neurotransmitters through neurons
very fast but short

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92
Q

how is specificity achieved in the nervous system signaling?

A

specificity is achieved by close connection of neurons and target cells

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93
Q

how is specificity achieved in the endocrine system signaling?

A

specificity is achieved by hormone (ligand) receptor interaction

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94
Q

what is the nervous system specialized for?

A

directing immediate and rapid responses

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95
Q

what is the endocrine system specialized for?

A

coordinating gradual changes that effect entire body

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96
Q

what are the main components of the nervous system?

A

nervous tissue made up neurons and glia

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97
Q

what do neurons do in the nervous system?

A

generate and transmit the electrochemical impulses

98
Q

what do glial cells do in the nervous system

A

maintain homeostasis, form myelin, nourish, support, protect neurons in central and peripheral

99
Q

what are neurons composed of?

A

cell body with dendrites coming off, and one large axon projecting off the cell body

100
Q

how do neural circuits work?

A

presynaptic neuron synaptic terminals releases neurotransmitters which fuse to receptors on postsynaptic cell which will respond if enough are received

101
Q

what do dendrites do?

A

bring information into cell body (electrical impulses)

102
Q

how do dendrites transport electrical impulses?

A

if enough stimulation is transported, and electrical signal will be generated at axon hillock which is sent down the axon to synaptic terminals which releases neurotransmitters

103
Q

what is cephalization?

A

elaboration of the central nervous system at the anterior end (only for bilaterally symmetical animals)

104
Q

what are the two parts of the nervous system?

A

central (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral (cranial nerves, ganglia, spinal nerves)

105
Q

what are nerves?

A

bundles of axons

106
Q

what are ganglia?

A

places where cell bodies of many neurons are grouped together (have nerves extending from them)

107
Q

what are the stages of information processing in the nervous system?

A

sensor sends sensory input (peripheral) to central to perform integration which leads to motor output (peripheral) to the effector

108
Q

what is an internueron?

A

a neuron entirely within the central nervous system

109
Q

what are the three types of nuerons?

A

sensory, inter, and motor

110
Q

how does the endocrine system send signals?

A

endocrine cells secrete hormones into bloodstream that bind to target cells (this will effect physiology and behaviour)

111
Q

how does the endocrine system send signals?

A

endocrine cells secrete hormones into bloodstream that bind to target cells (this will effect physiology and behavior)

112
Q

what does the hypothalamus do in the endocrine system?

A

regulates the system (receives signals from different parts of the brain) and sends hormones usually through the pituitary gland which determines what the other endocrine glands will do

113
Q

what is the posterior pituitary made of?

A

axons of neurosecretory cells that produce hormones and secretes them into bloodstream

114
Q

what is the anterior pituitary made of?

A

endocrine cells that respond to hormones from hypothalamus (received via portal vessels) by secreting their own hormones

115
Q

what is the hierarchical organization of the endocrine system?

A

hypothalamus -> pituitary -> other endocrine glands

116
Q

how does the fight or flight response work?

A

hypothalamus integrates the stress and sends electrical signals through spinal cord to adrenal glands
adrenal medulla produces epinephrine and norepinephrine

117
Q

what is the adrenal medulla?

A

inner layer of adrenal gland - made of endocrine cells

118
Q

what are the two main types of hormones?

A

water soluble and lipid soluble

119
Q

what is the speed difference between water soluble and lipid soluble hormones?

A

water can be synthesized ahead of time (and stored in vacuoles) whereas lipid hormones are not made ahead of time since they can travel through membranes - so water hormones are released much more quickly

120
Q

how do lipid soluble hormones move through blood?

A

cannot just move through like water soluble, need transport proteins

121
Q

how do water soluble hormones move through membrane?

A

cannot just move through like lipid soluble, need a receptor on plasma membrane (lipid hormones receptors are on nucleus)

122
Q

what type of action is generated with lipid soluble hormones?

A

usually effect gene regulation

123
Q

what type of action is generated with water soluble hormones?

A

always trigger a signal cascade (sometimes with gene regulation sometimes not)

124
Q

what determines the effect a hormone has on the cell?

A

the signaling pathways within the cell
the type of receptor

125
Q

what are antagonistic hormones?

A

pairs of hormones whose actions oppose each other to keep a physiological parameter within an acceptable range

126
Q

what is an example of antagonistic hormones?

A

insulin and glucagon

127
Q

what is bioenergetics?

A

overall flow and transformation of energy within an organism

128
Q

how is energy lost from the body?

A

heat from digestion/absorption
heat from cellular respiration
heat from biosynthesis
heat from cellular work

129
Q

what are the stages of chemical reactions in digestion?

A

digestion and absorption
cellular respiration (to cellular work)
biosynthesis (from carbon skeletons)

130
Q

what is a metabolic rate?

A

amount of energy used per unit time

131
Q

what is basal metabolic rate?

A

metabolic rate of a non-growing endotherm that is at rest with an empty digestive tract and with no stress (minimum amount of energy that an animal can be using at a time)

132
Q

what can you use to measure an animals energy use?

A

heat production
oxygen consumption
carbon dioxide production
food consumption/waste production

133
Q

what is the relation between mass and BMR

A

metabolic rate increases as mass does (BMR = mass^3/4)
as body mass increases, each kilo is using less and less energy

134
Q

what are the essential components of food for animals?

A

amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals because they are needed but not produced by the animal
as well as nucleic acids, carbs, proteins, lipids to create more within the body

135
Q

what are the main functions carried out by the digestive system?

A

ingestion (food handling), digestion (breaking down), absorption (nutrient molecules into cells), elimination (removing undigested material)

136
Q

what are the two types of digestion?

A

mechanical (teeth chewing, stomach churning) is first, then chemical digestion (breaking molecules down into components)

137
Q

what system has the most diverse sturctures?

A

digestive

138
Q

what are the different types of feeding styles?

A

suspension and filter feeders
substrate feeders
fluid feeders
bulk feeders

139
Q

how do suspension and filter feeders eat?

A

always aquatic, consume particles that are much smaller than themselves (some use filters - whales use baleens)

140
Q

how do substrate feeders eat?

A

live on or in their food (catapillers)

141
Q

how do fluid feeders eat?

A

through fluid (blood, nectar, etc)

142
Q

how do bulk feeders eat?

A

eat a meal of large pieces of food (humans, most preditors)

143
Q

what are the two mains parts of the digestive system?

A

alimentary canal (tube from mouth to ass) and accessory organs

144
Q

what are the main accessory organs?

A

salivary glands
liver
gallbladder
pancreas

145
Q

what are the main parts of the alimentary canal?

A

tongue
oral cavity
pharynx
esophagus
small intestine
large intestine
rectum
anus

146
Q

what are sphincters?

A

a circle of smooth muscle that contracts to close over openings

147
Q

where are sphincters located in digestive tract?

A

in-between esophagus and stomach
in-between stomach and small intestine

148
Q

what is saliva composed of?

A

mucus (protects lining of mouth and lubes food)
buffers (prevent tooth decay by neutralizing acid)
antimicrobial agents (lysozyme)
salivary amylase (breaks down carbs)

149
Q

what is the process of digestion?

A

oral cavity - mechanical and sometimes chemical digestion forms a bolus of food
pharynx opens in trachea and esophagus
epiglottis opens to let bolus into esophagus
peristalsis (wave of contraction and relaxation( push bolus down esophagus
spchicter opens and bolus goes into stomach
stomach contracts and mixes bolus with gastric juice (becomes chyme)

150
Q

what are gastric glands

A

inside gastric pits - secrete gastric juice

151
Q

what is gastric juice made of?

A

water (lumen of stomach)
hydrogen and chloride ions (parietal cells)
pepsinogen (chief cells) - converted to pepsin by HCl
mucus (mucus cells)

152
Q

what does pepsin do?

A

an active enzyme that breaks down protein molecules into polypeptides (pepsin also increase the production of pepsinogen - positive feedback loop)

153
Q

where are carbs digested?

A

oral cavity
small intestine (pancreatic and epithelial enzymes)

154
Q

where are proteins digested?

A

stomach
small intestine (pancreatic and epithelial enzymes)

155
Q

where are nucleic acids digested?

A

small intestine (pancreatic and epithelial enzymes)

156
Q

where are lipids digested?

A

small intestine (pancreatic enzymes only)

157
Q

how do we not digest ourselves?

A

mucus provides protection for cells lining the alimentary canal
HCl and digestive enzymes maintained in in active forms until they are released in alimentary canal lumen
rapid turnover of cells in alimentary canal

158
Q

what structures in the esophagus relate to function?

A

long tube - more absorption/can fold
large circular folds - increase surface area
finger-like projections called villi - increase absorption
microvilli - more absorption
many blood vessels connecting to liver

159
Q

what is the large intestine composed of?

A

colon (reabsorbs water)
cecum (houses bacteria to ferment plant material - cellulose)
rectum

160
Q

how do the digestive system and endocrine system interact?

A

release digestive hormones are triggered by presence of food
digestive hormones trigger secretion of gastric juices and digestive enzymes
insulin and glucagon are triggered by blood glucose levels
hormones regulate appetite

161
Q

what is diffusion?

A

molecules moving randomly (kinetic energy) causing a net flow from [high] to [low] (rate of proportion is inversely related to distance

162
Q

what is the formula for rate of diffusion?

A

rate of diffusion = surface area / distance

163
Q

what animals need to have a circulatory system?

A

animals with many cell laters (to transport materials between cells)

164
Q

what are the three universal circulatory system components?

A

circulatory fluid (hemolymph if open, blood in closed)
set of intervconnecting vessels
muscular pump

165
Q

what are the two types of circulatory systems (explained)?

A

open: hemolymph circulates throughout the body
closed: blood is contained within system of vessels

166
Q

how do materials get from blood to cells?

A

closed - diffuse from blood into interstitial fluid and then move into cells
open - circulatory fluid comes in contact with all the organs, etc

167
Q

what is the pulmonary circuit in animals?

A

the heart - oxygen rich and oxygen poor blood are kept separate (poor on left, rich on right)

168
Q

what are the main parts of the heart that are involved in the cardiac cycle?

A

superior vena cava (moves deoxygenated blood returning from systemic circuit)
right atrium (pushes blood into right ventricle)
right ventricle (pushes blood out through pulmonary artery)
pulmonary artery (branches off to bring blood to left and right lung)
GAS EXCHANGE
pulmonary veins (moves oxygen rich blood into heart)
left atrium (pushes blood into left ventricle)
left ventricle (pushes blood to aorta)
aorta (branches to send blood to body

169
Q

what are the two types of valves?

A

atrioventricular valves (separate the atria from ventricles and prevent back flow into atria)
semilunar valves (separate ventricles form arteries and prevent back flow into ventricles)

170
Q

what does diastole mean?

A

relaxation

171
Q

what does systole mean?

A

contraction

172
Q

what are the stages of the cardiac cycle?

A

atrial and ventricular diastole
atrial systole and ventricular diastole
ventricular systole and atrial diastole

173
Q

what is the structure of arteries/veins?

A

arteries branch into arteriole (bring blood into capillary bed) then debranch into venule which come together to form veins

174
Q

what are the layers in an artery/vein wall ?

A

endothelium, smooth muscle, connective tissue

175
Q

what is the structure of capillaries?

A

capillaries have a single layer wall (basal lamina)

176
Q

what is the difference between arteries and veins?

A

arteries always have thicker walls because they experience higher blood pressures
veins have valves to prevent back flow

177
Q

how is blood flow regulated?

A

nerve impulses, hormones, local chemicals that affect arteriole diameter and pre-capillary sphincters

178
Q

how many capillaries are usually being used?

A

10-15% at any one time

179
Q

how does exchange of materials between blood and interstitial fluid work?

A

thin capillary walls and slow blood velocity allow for diffusion

180
Q

what is blood composed of?

A

55% plasma
45% cellular elements

181
Q

what is plasma made of?

A

water
ions
proteins
nutrients, metabolites, and wastes

182
Q

what are the cellular elements of blood made up of?

A

erythrocytes (red blood cells)
leukocytes (white blood cells)
platelets

183
Q

what are platelets?

A

bits of broken cells that help with blood clotting

184
Q

how are respiratory surface structures utilized for function?

A

gills, tracheae, lungs all have very large surface areas (greater than rest of body exterior)
very thin exchange surface (single epithelial layer)

185
Q

how does air/water breathing differ?

A

water breathers need to be much more efficient (80% vs 20%) because air has a much higher concentration of O2

186
Q

what environments do gills need to function?

A

respiratory system must be moist
respiratory surfaces of terrestrial animals are enclosed within the body to prevent excess water loss

187
Q

what does the mammalian respiratory system composed of?

A

nasal cavity connects to pharynx connects to larynx connects to trachea connects to bronchi branch out into bronchiole (surrounded by diaphragm

188
Q

what is the main component of red blood cells?

A

almost entirely hemoglobin (binds to O2 so red blood cells can transport O2)

189
Q

where is the CO2 in the body?

A

bound to amin acids of hemoglobin (23%)
in blood plasma as CO2 (7%)
in blood plasma as bicarbonate (70%)

190
Q

what are the two parts of the immune system?

A

innate immunity (all animals)
adaptive immunity (only vertebrates)

191
Q

what is innate immunity?

A

rapid response - recognizes a traits shared by lots of pathogens using a small set of receptors

192
Q

what is adaptive immunity?

A

slower response with recognition of specific pathogen’s traits using lots of receptors

193
Q

what are the four steps of immune responses?

A

barrier defences (innate)
internal defences (innate)
humoral response (adaptive)
cell-mediated response (adaptive)

194
Q

what are pathogens?

A

an organism that elicits an immune response from a host cell

195
Q

what are the barrier defences of the immune system?

A

skin (outer surfaces that inhibit entry by pathogens)
mucous membranes (secretes by internalized external surfaces - traps microbes and other particles
secretions (saliva/tears that wash away microbial colonization and create a hostile chemical environment (like lysozyme, acidic pH, etc)

196
Q

what are the internal defences of the immune system?

A

phagocytic cells (eat the pathogens)
natural killer cells (release chemicals that trigger apoptosis)
antimicrobial proteins (interferons and complement proteins)
inflammatory response (local - histamine and cytokines, or systemic)

197
Q

what is the humoral response of the immune system?

A

antibodies defending against infections in body fluids

198
Q

what is the cell-mediated response in the immune system?

A

cytotoxic cells defend against infection in body cells

199
Q

what is lysosome?

A

enzyme that attacks bacterial cell walls (in saliva)

200
Q

what are phagocytic cells?

A

they recognize molecules that are not in host and essential for living for pathogen groups
located in blood, skin, mucous membranes, lymph
when the locate a pathogen, pseudopodia engulf the pathogen and pinch off vacuole to bring it into the cell
vacuole is joined with lysosome and digests it

201
Q

what is the lymphatic system?

A

series of vessels that mop up excess fluid that is leaked from the capillaries
liquid is called lymph
lymph nodes monitor the fluid for any pathogens

202
Q

what are interferons?

A

proteins produced by virus infected host cells to trigger surrounding cells to produce chemicals that inhibit viral reproduction (warning messengers)

203
Q

what are complement proteins?

A

plasma proteins activated by substances on the surface of many microbes
lead to lysis of invading cells
involved in inflammation and in adaptive immunity

204
Q

how does local inflammation work?

A

histamine triggers vasodilation and increased load vessel permeability in affected area and more white blood cells and proteins can enter interstitial fluid
cytokines further increase blood flow to affected area
inflammation increased amount of blood being brought to area, which brings phagocytic cells, complement proteins, and other antimicrobial proteins

205
Q

how does systemic inflammation work?

A

only happens in serious infections
releases more white blood cells from bone marrow
resets body’s thermostat to cause fever

206
Q

how does the adaptive immune system achieve specificity?

A

specificity is achieved through interactions between antigens and antigen receptors
antigens are large molecules found on or around pathogens
antigen receptors are proteins produced by B cells or T cells

207
Q

what are antigens made up of?

A

multiple epitopes (small accessible portions that bind to antigen receptors) (specific ones for specific receptors)

208
Q

what are antigen receptors made of/from?

A

from B cells and T cells (forms of white blood cells produced in the bone marrow, T cells mature in thymus)
each cell produces a single type of antigen receptor (bind to a single epitope on a single antigen on a single pathogen)
B cell antigen receptors bind to intact antigens in blood or lymph
T cell antigen receptors only bind to antigen fragments presents on surface of host cells

209
Q

what happens when a antigen receptor meets its epitope?

A

cell produces many copies of cell that is specific for that epitope (proliferation)
some of those cells are kept as memory (stored in case the antigen is encountered again)
other are effector cells (take action)

210
Q

how do the effective forms of B cells work?

A

effector B cells are plasma cells (secrete specific antibodies that circulate in the blood looking for the epitope and destroy the pathogen through
neutralization (changes surface structure to prevent virus from gaining access to host cells)
opsonization (bind and act as a marker of flag for other immune cells to increase likelihood that cells will get phagocytosized)
or indirectly through activating complement proteins (leading to lysis)

211
Q

how do the effector forms of T cells work?

A

helper T cells help activate cytotoxic T cells (binds with antigen to produce cytokines promote further production of cytokines)
cytotoxic T cells carry out destruction of pathogens/infected cells (bind and produce granzymes (enter pathogen and initiate apoptosis) and perforin (form pore in cell so fluid goes in and it explodes))

212
Q

what does ambient mean?

A

environmental

213
Q

what is a regulator?

A

an animal that will maintain its own internal temperature no matter the external

214
Q

what is a conformer?

A

an animal that adapts their internal conditions to match the external ones

215
Q

what are the benefits/cost to being a conformer?

A

may be able to tolerate greater ranges for physiological parameters
internal stability is possible ins table environment

216
Q

what is thermoregulation?

A

regulating body temperature

217
Q

what is osmoregulation?

A

regulating solute and water concentrations

218
Q

why does body temp matter?

A

enzyme kinetics (have optimal temperatures)
every animal has optimal internal temp range (can be wide or narrow)

219
Q

what is a poikilotherm?

A

body temp varies with environment

220
Q

what is a homeotherm?

A

keep relatively stable body temperature

221
Q

what is an endotherm?

A

rely on metabolism as major heat source

222
Q

what is an ectotherm?

A

do not produce enough body heat to raise their body temp beyond external temp

223
Q

what organisms are endotherms and homeotherms?

A

mammals and some birds

224
Q

what organisms are ectotherms and homeotherms?

A

some tropical reptiles, antarctic and deep sea fish

225
Q

what organisms are endotherms and poikilotherms?

A

birds mammals that undergo hibernation, some insects

226
Q

what organisms are ectotherms and poikilotherms?

A

most invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, and fish

227
Q

what are the common parings of thermoregulation?

A

most ectotherms are poikilotherms
most endotherms are homeotherms

228
Q

what mechanisms do animals use for thermoregulation?

A

behavioural responses (both) - shade seeking, sun basking
evaporative heat loss (both) - panting, sweating
vasoregulation (both)
countercurrent heat exchangers
metabolic heat production
insulation (hair, fur, fat)

229
Q

what are the types of vasoregulation?

A

vasodilation (relaxes smooth muscle walls of surface blood vessels to allow more blood to flow from core to surface for cooling)
vasoconstriction (tenses smooth muscle walls of surface blood vessels to reduce blood flow from core to surface to prevent heat loss)
both are achieved via nerve impulses and hormones

230
Q

what is concurrent heat exchangers?

A

heat transferred between fluids flowing in opposite directions (hot arterial blood transfers to cold venous blood)

231
Q

what is metabolic heat production?

A

a mechanism for thermoregulation using
muscle contraction (activity/shivering)
brown adipose tissue (high [mitochrondria] uses cellular respiration to produce heat instead of ATP)

232
Q

what is osmoregulation?

A

control of [individual solute] and [water] and [total solute]

233
Q

what is osmosis?

A

movement of water across selectively permeable membrane (water only)

234
Q

what does hypoosmotic and hyperosmatic mean?

A

hypoosmotic has lower solute and higher free water concentration than the hyperosmotic

235
Q

what happens to cells in different levels of osmotic solutions?

A

hyperosmotic - cell wil lose too much water to surroundings and die :(
hypoosmotic - cell will gain too much water from surrounds and die :(
isoosmotic - no net movement so cell lives :) (cause the solute concentrations are equal)

236
Q

how do animals regulate water balance?

A

osmoconformers are isoosmotic with environment - all are marine, some stable some variable, actively transport specific solutes to maintain homeostasis
osmoregulators maintain stable internal osmolarity - found in marine, freshwater, terrestrial environments, particular internal osmolarity achieved by active transport

237
Q

what determines the osmotic challenges an animal faces?

A

depends on environment:
freshwater risk gaining water
marine risk losing water
terrestrial risk losing water

238
Q

how do marine fish osmoregulate?

A

osmotic water loss through gills (increase internal osmolarity)
eating would be gaining water and solutes back through food - so they drink water (still salty) so they actively excrete salts out of their body (actively transport chloride and sodium follows)
and pee concentrated

239
Q

how do freshwater fish osmoregulate?

A

they gain water through gills and gain water from food (and ions)
they do not drink water - instead they actively transport chloride (sodium follows) into the body
and pee diluted

240
Q

what is the osmoregulation challenge to terrestrial animals and how do they deal with it?

A

dehydration is the primarily challenge:
have adaptations to reduce water loss (body coverings and nocturnal)
eat and drink water

241
Q

what is transport epithelia?

A

one or more layers of epithelial cells specialized to move particular solutes (controlled amounts/specific directions)
have large surface areas (some face external environment, many line tubular networks that connect)
closely connected to circulatory fluid

BIOL1011 unit 2 & 3 (2 decks)

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