Anatomy - IMMS Flashcards
Torso/Trunk
main central part of the body including:
- thorax
- abdomen
- pelvis
The torso does not include…
- neck
- head
- upper/lower limbs
Thorax
-upper part of torso from bottom of neck to diaphragm
- houses lungs and heart, surrounded by ribs
- chest: refers to front of thorax
Abdomen
- central part of torso between diaphragm and top of pelvic bones
- contains most of the organs of digestion including: stomach, intestine + liver
Pelvis
- lowest part of torso between abdomen and start of lower limbs
- contains last part of digestive tract, bladder + reproductive organs
- term used to describe both entirety of pelvic region including organs, blood vessels and bone
Back
entire posterior surface of the torso
Arm
- upper part of the upper limb (from torso to elbow)
- this is where the bicep muscle is present
Forearm
middle part of the upper limb (from elbow to the wrist)
Thigh
upper part of the lower limb (pelvis to knee)
Leg
middle part of lower limb (knee to ankle)
Superior
above
Inferior
below
Anterior/Ventral
front (or in front of)
Posterior/Dorsal
back (behind)
Medial
closer to the centre line
Lateral
further away from the centre line
Proximal
Closer to the origin
Distal
further away from the origin
Ipsilateral
the same side of the body
Contralateral
opposite side of body
Deep
further away from the surface
Superficial
closer to surface
Supine
lying down, flat on back, facing up
Prone
lying down, on front, facing face down
Cranial
towards the head
Caudal
towards the ‘tail’
Rostral
towards the face
Coronal
‘face on’ - cuts a structure into anterior and posterior part
Sagittal
‘side on’ - cuts a structure into a left and a right
Parasagittal
cut in the sagittal plane but parallel to the midline
Axial (transverse)
‘end on’ - cuts a structure into a superior and inferior part
Axial (skeleton)
central, or core parts: skull, vertebral column, ribs + sternum
Apendicular (skeleton)
bones of limbs, including shoulder blades, collarbones and pelvic girdle
Scapulae
shoulder blades
Clavicles
collarbones
What is the skeleton made up of?
bone and cartilage
Joint
where two bones meet and ‘articulate’ with each other
Histological
cellular and structural composition of tissues
How many histological types of joints are there?
3
What are the three histological types of joints?
- synovial joints
- fibrous joints
- cartilaginous joints
Synovial joints
- most common
- narrow synovial cavity separates articular surfaces of the bone
- cavity contains lubricating synovial fluid (which is enclosed in a joint capsule)
- allow a great deal of movement
Joint capsule
two layers:
- outer fibrous capsule
- inner synovial membrane
What are the articular surfaces covered with in synovial joints?
‘hyaline’ cartilage
Examples of synovial joints
- shoulder
- knee
- wrist joints
Fibrous joints
- connect two bones together via strong fibrous tissue
- no cavity and no fluid
- little movement at fibrous joints
Example of fibrous joints
joints between the individual bones of the skull ‘sutures’
Cartilaginous joints
- like fibrous joints but articular surfaces are separated by cartilage instead of fibrous tissue
- two subtypes
What are the two subtypes of cartilaginous joints?
- primary cartilaginous
- secondary cartilaginous
Primary cartilaginous
joints connected to each other by hyaline cartilage (allows some felxibility)
Example of primary cartilaginous
where ribs meet the sternum
Secondary cartilaginous
- joints connceted by FIBROCARTILAGE
- a layer of hyaline cartilage covers the articular surfaces of the bone
- flexible but strong and can support a lot of weight
Example of secondary cartilaginous
intervertebral discs
Where are intervertebral discs found?
between the vertebrae in the spine
Synovial joints permit?
movements in different planes and to different degrees
What does synovial joint movement depend on?
- shape of articular surfaces
- other factors such as surrounding ligaments and muscles
How many types of synovial joints are there?
six
What are the different types of synovial joints?
- ball and socket
- hinge
- pivot
- saddle
- condyloid
- plane
Ball and socket
- end of one bone is shaped like a ball and the end of the other is shaped like a bowl (fits inside)
- joints are mobile and allow significant range of movement in all directions (including rotation)
What determines the level of mobility of ball and socket joints?
the fit between the ball and socket
(better fit = more stable joint but less mobile, but less risk of dislocation)
Hinge
- like a hinge on a door
- allow significant range of movement but only in one plane
Example of hinge joints
- elbow
- knee
Pivot
allows rotational movement only
Example of pivot joint
top of spine where C1 at the base of the skull pivots around the peg on C2
Saddle
- shaped like a rider sitting in a saddle
permits movement in two planes
Example of saddle joint
joint at the end of the thumb (metacarpal of thumb articulates with one of the small carpal bones)
Condyloid
- like ball and socket but surfaces are oval shaped
good range of movement but only in two planes
Example of condyloid joint
- wrist joint
- metacarpophalangeal joint of the fingers (knuckles)
Plane (joint)
- articular surfaces are almost flat and glide against each other
- range of movement is usually limited and dictated by neighbouring bones and surrounding ligaments
Example of plane joint
joint between small bones of the wrist and acromioclavicular joint at top of the shoulder
What is a Ligament
a band of fibrous connective tissue that attaches bone to bone
Purpose of ligaments
stabilise joints and limit their movement
Characteristics of ligaments
can be stretched to allow greater joint mobility
What is a sprain?
when a ligament is overstretched and injured (it is painful and may not return to their original shape)
What could happen to ligaments when joints dislocate?
they may be stretched so much they become permanently lax, leading to joint instability and recurrent dislocation
Flexion
Bending
What does bending mean?
decreasing the angle between two parts
Extension
straightening
What does straightening mean?
increasing the angle between two parts
Lateral flexion
bending sideways (unique to the vertebral column)
Abduction
movement away from the midline
Adduction
movement towards the midline
Internal rotation
rotating (around an axis) towards the midline
What is internal rotation also known as?
medial rotation
External rotation
rotating (around an axis) away from the midline
What is external rotation also known as?
lateral rotation
Pronation
internal rotation of the radius (unique to the forearm): so that palm faces posteriorly
Supination
external rotation of the radius (unique to the forearm): so that palm faces anteriorly
Opposition
flexion rotation of the thumb or little finger so that each one can reach the other
What is the movement opposition unique to?
the thumb and little finger
Circumduction
- combination of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction
- the appendage traces a circular or conical pattern
Dorisflexion
foot and toes move superiorly towards the shin (pointing the foot and toes up)
What is dorisflexion unique to?
ankle
Plantarflexion
foot and toes move inferiorly (pointing them down)
What is plantarflexion unique to?
ankle
Eversion
lateral flexion so that the sole of the foot faces laterally
What is eversion unique to?
ankle
Protraction
moving scapula or mandible anteriorly (moving upper limb out in front to open a door)
What is Protraction unique to?
scapula and mandible
Retraction
moving scapula or mandible posteriorly
What is retraction unique to?
scapula and mandible
Example of retraction
- squaring shoulders
Elevation
moving scapula and mandible superiorly
What is elevation unique to?
scapula and mandible
Example of elevation
- shrugging shoulders
- closing the mouth
Depression
moving scapula or mandible inferiorly
What is depression unique to?
scapula and mandible
Example of depression
- returning shoulders after elevation
- opening mouth
What are the three different types of muscles?
- skeletal
- smooth
- cardiac
Skeletal muscle
- provides support for body
- moves joints and some soft tissues
- voluntary
- striated
Example of soft tissues skeletal muscle helps to move
- eyeball
- tongue
Smooth muscle
- in walls of blood vessels and internal organs (intestine)
- involuntary
- controlled by autonomic nervous system
- not striated
Cardiac muscle
- unique to heart
- involutary
contract in response to electrical impulses spontaneously generated by specialised cells within the heart - autonomic nervous system influences these specialised cells and can speed up/down heart rate
- striated
How are skeletal muscles attached to bone or soft tissue?
by tendons
Tendons
- many are rounded (like a cord) but some form thin, flat sheets = aponeuroses
Aponeuroses
thin flat sheets of tendons
What must happen in order for joints to move?
muscles or tendons must cross them
What happens when a muscle contracts?
- one of its attachments moves whilst the other does not
What is the bone/part that moves in contraction called?
origin
What is the bone/part that doesn’t move in contraction called?
insertion
What does the arrangment of fibres of skeletal muscle allow?
exert force or achieve specific movements
How many orientations of skeletal muscle fibres are there?
- parallel
- convergent
- circular
- pennate
Parallel skeletal muscle fibres
- fibres are aligned parallel to each other
- can shorten significantly and quickly
- relatively less powerful than pennate muscles
How many sub types of parallel skeletal muscle fibres are there?
2
What are the sub types of parallel skeletal muscle fibres?
- fusiform muscle
- strap muscle
Fusiform muscle
long tendon at each end and muscle belly bulges out in the middle
Example of fusiform muscle
biceps brachii
Strap muscle
belt-shaped and relatively uniform in width at the belly
Example of strap muscle
- sartorius in the thigh
- rectus abdominas in the abdominal wall
Convergent skeletal muscle fibre
- fan shaped and broad attachement at one end
- fibres converging onto a much smaller attachment at the other
Example of convergent skeletal muscle fibre
pectoralis major on anterior chest wall
Circular skeletal muscle fibre
- fibres are arranged in concentric rings around a structure
- called sphincters
- when they contract, they lose the aperture they surround
Example of circular skeletal muscle fibre
muscles around eyes and lips
Pennate skeletal muscle fibre
- fibres arranged at an angle to the direction in which the muscle acts
- cannot shorten as much as parallel muscles but are powerful
How many sub types of pennate skeletal muscle fibre are there?
- unipennate
- bipennate
- multipennate
Unipennate
- fibres arranged diagonally in relation to the tendon and insert onto one side of the tendon only
Example of unipennate skeletal muscle fibre
extensor digitorum longus in the leg
Bipennate
- fibres arranged in a v-shape and insert into both sides of the tendon (look like a feather)
Example of bipennate skeletal muscle fibre
rectus femoris in the thigh
Multipennate
- look like multiple bipennate muscles side-by-side
- all attach to one tendon
Example of multipennate skeletal muscle fibre
deltoid in shoulder
What is a motor unit composed of?
- a single motor neurone
- its axon
- muscle fibres it supplies
What are the three parts that make up the upper limbs?
- arm
- forearm
- hand
What are the three parts that make up the lower limbs?
- thigh
- leg
- foot
Similarities between the gross anatomy of the upper and lower limbs
- ball and socket joint
- one large bone in proximal part (humerus and femur)
- hinge joint separating proximal and middle parts
- two bones in the middle part
- collection of small bones at the start of the distal part (carpal and tarsal bones)
- five digits
- one digit significantly larger
- most of muscle mass is concentrated proximally
What are the two bones found in the middle of the upper limbs?
radius and ulna
What are the two bones found in the middle of the lower limbs?
tibia and fibula
Why is the upper limb more mobile?
- evolved primarily for dexterity
How has the upper limbs evolved differently?
- shoulder joint has a shallow socket and lax ligaments allowing a significant range of motion for positioning the hand
- fingers are long and perform complex movements
What has the lower limbs evolved for?
bipedal locomotion and to support weight of the body
How has the lower limbs evolved differently?
- hip joint has deeper socket and strong ligaments
- very stable, but less mobile
- foot and toes are adapted for weight-bearing rather than dexterity
What is the vertebral column?
spine or spinal column
How big is the vertebral column?
spans from base of skull to the coccyx
What does the spine support?
- head
- neck
- torso
What does the spine protect?
the spinal cord
What does the spine provide attachment for?
muscles (therefore also allowing movement)
How many cervical vertebrae are there?
7 (C1 to C7)
How many thoracic vertebrae are there?
12 (T1 to T12)
How many Lumbar vertebrae are there?
5 (L1 to L5)
How many Sacral vertebrae are there?
5 (S1 to S5)
Where are the sacral vertebrae found?
in the pelvis fused into the sacrum
How many Coccygeal vertebrae are there?
4 (Co1 to Co4) - which are fused into the coccyx
Where are the Coccygeal vertebrae found?
in the pelvis
What is the reason for the vertebral column being curved?
helps to absorb shock
In what direction do the cervical and lumbar segments curve?
anteriorly (forming cervical lordosis and lumbar lordosis)
In what direction do the thoracic and sacral segments curve?
posteriorly (forming a thoracic kyphosis and sacral kyphosis)
What do intervertebral discs between the vertebrae do?
support the weight of the upper body and absorb shock
Features of cervical vertebrae
- bifid (two pronged) spinous process
- holes in transverse processes
- oval shaped bodies
Features of Thoracic vertebrae
- long, sharp, downward-sloping spinous processes that overlap the vertebrae below
- additional articular facets
- heart shaped bodies
What are the additional articular facets in thoracic vertebrae for?
the attachment of ribs
Features of Lumbar vertebrae
- short, blunt spinous processes
- extra large oval shaped bodies
What is the purpose of lumbar vertebrae having extra large oval shaped bodies?
to support the weight of the body
Features of Sacral vertebrae
- fused into the sacrum
- triangular shaped bone
- sits in the posterior midline
- articulates with left and right hip bones to form a bony pelvis
Features of Coccygeal vertebrae
- fused to form coccyx
What is coccyx?
vestigial remnant which used to be a tail
What does the skull protect?
the brain
What does the vertebral column protect?
spinal cord
What forms when axons are bundled together?
nerves
How does the CNS develop in the embryo?
- as a tube - it grows much larger to then become the spinal cord
- two flextures (bends) develop in the tube so the brain and cord are not orientated along the same axis
What parts is the nervous system divided into anatomically?
- CNS
- PNS
What is the PNS?
all nervous tissue outside the CNS
- cranial nerves
- spinal nerves
- autonomic nerves
What parts is the nervous system divided into functionally?
- somatic nervous system
- autonomic nervous system
What does the somatic nervous system control?
voluntary activities under concious control
What does the autonomic nervous system control?
involuntary activities, not under concious control
What three parts is the brain divided into anatomically?
- cerebrum
- cerebellum
- brainstem
True or false? The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain
true
What is the cerebrum comprised of?
the left and right hemispheres, which are connected to each other
What is the surface of the cerebrum called?
cerebral cortex
Cerebral cortex
- contains neuron cell bodies, giving it a grey appearance = grey matter
- folded
- grooves
Grey matter
information is processed here
What are the folds in the cerebral cortex called?
gyri (gyrus)
What are the grooves in the cerebral cortex called and found?
sulci, found in between the folds gyri
What do we find within the cerebral hemispheres?
- masses of axons (pale appearance = white matter)
- collections of cell bodies called nuclei (look grey)
White matter
information is transmitted through bundles of fibres
How is each cerebral hemisphere divided anatomically?
into four lobes:
- frontal
- parietal
- occipital
- temporal lobes
Where is the large frontal lobe?
anterior
Where is the small occipital lobe?
posterior
Where are the parietal and temporal lobes?
in between the frontal and occipital lobes
- parietal on top
What does cerebellum mean?
‘little brain’
Where is the cerebellum?
inferior to the posterior part of the cerebrum
What is the cerebellum composed of?
- left and right hemispheres (connected to each other)
- highly folded cortex
- white matter and nuclei deep to the cortex
What is the cerebellum attached to?
the brainstem
Cerebellum functions
- balance
- coordination
- movement
True or false? The cerebellum operates by conscious control
False - beyond our conscious control
How many parts is the brainstem composed of?
three
What are the parts that make up the brainstem?
- midbrain
- pons
- medulla
Where is the brainstem?
inferior to the cerebrum and anterior to the cerebellum
Vital functions of the brainstem
- relays information between the cerebrum, spinal cord and cerebellum
- gives rise to most of the cranial nerves
- contains ‘centres’ that regualte breathing and consciousness
What is the spinal cord a continuation of?
the medulla
True or false, the spinal cord is shorter than the vertebral column
true
Where does the spinal cord end?
L1 - L2
What is the shape of the grey matter in the spinal cord?
H, in an axial cross-section
What is the grey matter surrounded by in the spinal cord?
white matter, containing tracts
What are tracts?
- bundles of axons that connect different parts of the CNS to each other
- cannot be seen by the naked eye
How many spinal nerves are attached to the spinal cord?
31 pairs
What does each pair of nerves in the spinal cord correspond to?
a spinal cord segment
Funciton of spinal nerves
carry information between the cord CNS and the periphery (skin, muscles)
What are the cavities inside the brain called?
ventricles
Describe the ventricles
continuous with each other and filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
What produces CSF
specialised cells within the ventricles
How does CSF leave the ventricles?
through small openings and surrounds the brain and spinal cord
Function of CSF
- provides nutrients to the brain
- protects brain by providing a cushion against trauma
- prevents delicate nerves and vessels from being compressed between the brain and internal surface of skull
How many interconnected ventricles in the brain are there?
four
What are the three membranes that lie between the brain and spinal cord and bones that protect them?
- dura mater
- arachnoid mater
- pia mater
Dura mater
- lines the inner surface of skull and vertebral column
- thick and strong
Arachnoid mater
- lies deep to the dura
- thin and loosley encloses brain and spinal cord
Pia mater
- lies deep to the arachnoid
- adhered to the surface of the brain and spinal cord
- thin and cannot be seen by the naked eye
Function of the meninges
- protects the brain
- provide a scaffold for blood vessels
What are the two pairs of arteries that supply blood to the brain?
- left and right internal carotid arteries
- left and right vertebral arteries
Where do the arteries give rise to branches that form interconnected ring: Circle of Willis?
inferior surface of the cerebrum
True or False? Circle of Willis is an example of an anastomosis
true
Anastomosis
where branches from otherwise separate arteries unite with each other
Advantage of circle of willis
theoretically allows for blood supply to be maintained even if one of the vessels supplying it becomes blocked
What does the circle of willis give rise to?
- three cerebral arteries
- cerebellar arteries
- arteries supplying brainstem and spinal cord
What do cerebral arteries supply blood to?
cerebral hemispheres
What do cerebellar arteries supply blood to?
cerebellum
What arteries connect to the cerebral arteries?
communicating arteries
What are the different types of veins in the brain?
- deep
- superficial
- large veins enclosed within the dura mater
What are the large veins enclosed in the dura mater called?
dural venous sinuses
True or false? the somatic nervous system has a sensory and motor component
true
What does the motor component of the somatic nervous system control?
voluntary contraction of skeletal muscle
What does the sensory component of the somatic nervous system control?
sends information about peripheral stimuli from the sensory receptors in the body to the CNS
What does the autonomic nervous system control?
involuntary activities
True or false? the autonomic nervous systme has a sensory and motor component?
true
What two parts is the motor component divided into?
- sympathetic
- parasympathetic
Sympathetic nervous system
‘fight or flight’
Parasympathetic nervous system
‘rest and digest’
Visceral efferent nerves
the nerves that leave the CNS travelling to the periphery
Fight or flight
- sympathetic
- heart rate increases
- bronchi dilate
- peripheral blood vessels constrict
- divert blood away from surface of skin
- pupils dilate and hair stands of end
- swear glands stimulated
Rest and digest
- parasympathetic
- heart rate decreases
- bronchi constrict
- glands stimulated (salivar- digestive secretions)
- gut activity (peristalsis) stimulated
- pupils constrict
peristalsis
gut activity
Where are the sympathetic neurone cell bodies?
thoracic and upper lumbar
(T1-L2/3)
Where are the parasympathetic neurone cell bodies?
brainstem and sacral spinal cord
(S2-S4)
Ganglion
collection of cell bodies outside CNS
Preganglionic nerve
axon of nerve is before ganglion (nerve coming from inside CNS)
Postganglioinic nerve
axon or nerve is after ganglion (nerve is going away and is outside the CNS)
Which nerve travels to the target organs?
Postganglionic nerve
Is the preganglioinc nerve shorter in the sympathetic or parasympathetic nerve?
sympathetic
True or false? Sympathetic ganglia lie closer to the CNS that the target organ?
true - therefore their preganglionic axons are short and post are long
Purpose of the sensory component of the ANS?
- conveys sensory information from viscera to CNS
- does not reach concious perception
What are visceral afferent fibres also known as?
sensory autonomic fibres
(convey information from the viscera back to CNS)
What is the purpose of the visceral afferent fibres?
- monitor internal environment (homeostasis and reflexes)
- convey information to CNS about distension, stretch , spsm or ischaemia of viscera
Distension
swelling
Ischaemia
lack of blood supply to a part of the body
Where do cranial nerves arise from?
- cerebrum
- brainstem
How many cranial nerves are there?
12 (numbered in roman numerals)
Why are cranial nerves a part of the peripheral nervous system?
because they leave the CNS and travel into the periphery
What do the 12 cranial nerves mainly serve?
the head and the neck
Where do cranial nerves exit the skull by?
passing through holes in the base of the skull
What are the holes in the base of the skull called?
Foramina
true or false? some cranial nerves are purely sensory or purely motor
true - some also carry both and others carry parasympathetic fibres too
How many spinal nerves are there?
31 pairs (attached to the spinal cord)
How many cervical spinal nerves are there?
8 (C1-C8)
How many thoracic spinal nerves are there?
12 (T1-T12)
How many lumbar spinal nerves are there?
5 (L1-L5)
How many sacral spinal nerves are there?
5 (S1-S5)
How many coccygeal spinal nerves are there?
1 (Co1)
True or false? Spinal nerves are mixed nerves and carry somatic motor, sympathetic and somatic sensory fibres
true
Where do somatic motor fibres carry?
CNS to body
Where do sympathetic fibres carry?
CNS to body
Where do somatic sensory carry?
Body to CNS
Where do spinal nerves pass through in the spinal cord?
through the gaps formed between adjacent vertebrae
Intervertebral foramina
gaps through the gaps formed between adjacent vertebrae
Where do the cell bodies of somatic motor neurons lie?
vetral horn of spinal cord (grey matter)
Ventral (motor) root of spinal nerve
- formed from the merging of the axons leaving the cord via a series of rootlets
- stimulate voluntary contraction of skeletal muscle
Where do the cell bodies of the periphery sensory neurons lie?
in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG)
- visible with the naked eye as ‘swellings’ on the dorsal roots
What is unique about the periphery sensory neurons?
they have two processes
- one peripherally into the spinal nerve
- one projecting centrally into the dorsal horn of the spinal cord (grey matter)
Where does the sensory information travel from?
peripheral receptors towards the DRG via the spinal nerve, then from DRG to the dorsal horn via a series of rootlets
How many spinal nerves are there?
31 pairs
What do all 31 spinal nerves contain?
sympathetic fibres (stimulate sweat glands and the contractoin of smooth muscle in peeripheral blood vessels and the hair follicles)
What are dermatomes?
an area of skin innervated by a single spinal nerve
What is a myotome?
the group of muscles innervated by a single spinal nerve
Thoracic cavity
- continuous with the neck via superior thoracic aperture
- separated from abdomincal cavity by the diaphragm
What is the diaphragm?
a sheet of skeletal muscle that is vital for breathing (openings in the diaphragm allow structures to pass between the thorax and abdomen)
What are the major organs of the thorax?
heart and lungs
What else is found in the thorax?
- trachea
- oesophagus
- arteries and veins
- nerves (somatic and autonomic)
- lymphatic vessels
What is the thoracic cage?
the bony skeleton of the thorax
(semi-rigid and moves with breathing to allow the lungs to expand)
What is the function of the thoracic cage?
- protects the thoraci viscera
- provides an attachment for the muscles of breathing and muscles that move the upper limb
What is the sternum?
breastbone
What is the thoracic cage made from?
- sternum
- 12 pairs of ribs
- thoracic vertebrae
Where is the sternum?
anterior in the midline of the throacic cage
What is the sternum comprised of?
- manubrium (superior)
- body (inferior to the manubrium)
- xiphoid process (inferior to the body)
What is the xiphoid process also known as?
xiphisternum
Suprasternal (jugular) notch
a notch on the superior border of the manubrium
True or false? the manubrium articulates with the clavicle at the sternoclavicular joint MEDIALLY
false - laterally
What is the sternal angle?
the manubrium and body of sternum articuating with each other
What is the sternal angle also known as?
angle of Louis
How many pairs of ribs form the anterior, lateral and posterior walls of the thoracic cage?
12 pairs
What are the anterior parts of the ribs composed of?
costal cartilage (giving the throacic cage some ‘springiness’)
At which joints do the ribs articulate with their costal cartilages?
costovertebral joints
Where do the intercostal muscles lie?
in the intercostal spaces between the ribs
What do the intercostal muscles do?
move the thorax for breathing
Where do the thoracic vertebrae articulate with each other?
at intervertebral joints AND with the posterior parts of the ribs at costovertebral joints
What are the speciaised nerve cells and fibres in the heart responsible for?
they spontaneously generate and conduct eletrical activity that stimulates contraction of the myocardium
What is the myocardium?
heart muscle
True or false? these specialised nerve cells in the heart are under somatic control?
false - under autonomic control
Sympathetic stimulation…..heart rate
increases
Parasympathetic stimulation…..heart rate
decreases
What sup-plies the myocardium with blood?
coronary arteries
What is the cardiopulomonary circulation?
the circulation between the heart and lungs
How many lobes make up the right lung?
three (superior, middle and inferior)
How many lobes make up the left lung?
two (upper and lower)
What separates the lobes of the lungs?
Fissures
Each lung is served by…
- one pulmonary artery
- two pulmonary veins
- one main bronchus
What is the bronchial tree
it describes the branching system of tubes that conduct air into and out of the lungs
What do the walls of the trachea and bronchi contain?
smooth muscle and cartilage
What is the role of cartilage in the trachea?
acts as a scaffold and ensures that the trachea and bronchi remain open
true or false? the walls of the bronchioles also contain cartilage and smooth muscle
false - only contain smooth muscle (can contract and relax and is under autonomic control)
Parasympathetic stimulation of the bronchioles
narrows
BRONCHOCONSTRICTION
Sympathetic stimulation of the bronchioles
opens
BRONCHODILATION
Surface anatomy
the study of anatomical structures by looking, feeling and listening
Clinical term for feeling
palpate
Clinical term for listening
auscultation (using a stethescope)
Which position is the sternal angle?
same level as the second ribs
Where is the second intercostal space?
inferior to the second ribs (a slight depression when palapting inferiorly to the second ribs)
What is inferior to the second intercostal space?
the third ribs
Midsternal line
drawn straight down the centre of the sternum
Midclavicular line
drawn inferiorly from the midpoint of the clavicle
Anterior axillary line
drawn inferiorly from the anterior axilla (armpit)
Midaxillary line
drawn inferiorly from the midpoint of the clavicle
Posterior axillary line
drawn inferiroly from the posterios axilla
Scapula line
drawn inferiorly through the scapula
Midvertebral line
drawn straight down along the spinous processes of the vertebrae
