Anatomy Exam 1 Flashcards
Anatomy is the study of
form or structure
Various procedures when examining structure of the human body (anatomy)
- Inspection
- Auscultation
- Percussion
- Palpation
- Cadaver Dissection
- Comparative Anatomy
Listening to the natural sounds made by the body.
Example
Auscultation
Example: listening to the heart and lung sounds with a stethoscope
Simply looking at the body’s appearance.
Example
Inspection
Example: As in performing a physical examination or making a clinical diagnosis from the surface appearance
Taps on the body (tissue or organs) to examine for pockets of fluid or air.
Percussion
Feeling a structure with hands.
Example
Palpation
Example: a physician feels a swollen lymph node or taking a pulse
Cutting and separating human body tissues to reveal tissue relationships. Method where the body is being explored. Surgically opening someones body and removing parts (organs, tissues, etc).
Cadaver Dissection
The study of multiple species in order to examine similarities and differences and analyze evolutionary trends. Science uses different species ranging from mice, rats, dogs, humans, and monkeys for scientific research.
Comparative Anatomy
Opening the body and taking a look inside to see what was wrong and what could be done about it (sometimes executed with a donated body).
Exploratory Surgery
Viewing the inside of the body without surgery.
Medical Imaging
Branch of medicine concerned with imaging.
Radiology
Study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye (Anatomy Lab)
Gross Anatomy
Microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease.
Histopathology
Examination of tissues with microscope.
Histology (microscopic anatomy)
Study of structure and function of cells.
Cytology
View detail under electron microscope.
Ultrastructure
Gross Anatomy
- Larger aspect of something
- Opposite would be micro
Two Scientific Methods
- The Inductive Method
- The Hypothetico-Deductive Method
- Most physiological knowledge was obtained by this method.
* *Describe the 7 steps
The Hypothetico-Deductive Method
(7 Steps)
1. Person makes an observation, they notice something and then they generate a question.
2. From the question a hypothesis is created.
3. From the hypothesis you have your experimental design.
4. Followed by the execution of your actual experiment.
5. Analyze results
6. Draw conclusions
7. Publish your data
- Described by Francis Bacon.
- Making numerous observations until one becomes confident in drawing generalizations and predictions.
(Taking a group of specimen and simply observing the anatomical features). - Does not involve experiment, but involves several observations.
The Inductive Method
Several elements of experimental design
- Sample Size
- Controls
- Psychosomatic effects
- Experimenter Bias
- Statistical Testing
The numbers of subjects (animals or people) used in a study. Controls for chance events and individual variations in response and thus enables us to place more confidence in the outcome.
Ex. Would you rather trust your health to a drug that was tested on 5 people or one tested on 5,000? Why?
Sample Size
Biomedical experiments require comparison between treated and untreated individuals so that we can judge whether the treatment has any effect.
Controls
Consists of subjects that are as much like the treatment group as possible, except with respect to the variable being treated.
Control Group
Effects of the subject’s state of mind on his or her physiology can have an undesirable effect on experimental results if we do not control for them.
“Worrying yourself sick”
Psychosomatic Effects
In the competitive, high-stakes world of medical research, experimenters may want certain results so much that their biases, even subconscious ones, can affect their interpretation of the data.
Experimenter Bias
Experimenter bias can be avoided by the __________ method.
Double-blind method
In this procedure, neither the subject to whom a treatment is given nor the person giving it and recording the results knows whether that subject is receiving the experimental treatment or placebo.
Double-blind method
Provides statement of probability that treatment was effective
Statistical testing
When a scientist applies for funds to support a research project or submits results for publication, the application or manuscript is submitted to critical evaluation by other experts in the field.
Peer Review
Peer review is one mechanism for ensuring
Honesty, Objectivity, and quality in science
Information that can be independently verified by any trained person.
(Example)
Scientific Fact (Example: We can walk outside and observe green trees OR The fact that an iron deficiency leads to anemia)
A generalization about the predictable ways in which matter and energy behave. It is the result of inductive reasoning based on repeated, confirmed observations.
Some are expressed as concise verbal statements and others are mathematical formulae.
(Example)
Law of Nature
(Example: Law of complementary base pairing in DNA. Adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine OR Boyle’s Law
An explanatory statement or set of statements derived from facts, laws, and confirmed hypotheses. The purpose of it is not only to concisely summarize what we already know, but to suggest directions for further study and to help predict what the findings should be if it is correct.
(Example)
Theory
Ex. The theory of evolution OR theory of natural selection
As an explanation of how species originate and change through time, natural selection was the brainchild of
Charles Darwin
Simply means change in the genetic composition of a population or organisms.
(Example)
Evolution
Ex: The emergence of new species of organisms
The principle theory of how evolution works. It states essentially this:
Some individuals within a species have hereditary advantages over their competitors.
(Ex. Better camouflage, disease resistance, or ability to attract mates that enable them to produce more offspring, and such characteristics therefor become more and more common in successive generations. This brings about the genetic change in a population that constitutes evolution.
Natural selection
Natural forces that promote reproductive success of some individuals more than others. They include things such as
Selection pressures
Includes climate, predators, disease, competition, food source
Features of anatomy, physiology and behavior that have evolved in response to there selection pressures and enable the organism to cope with the challenges of its environment.
(Example)
Adaptations
Ex. Better camouflage
Bipedalism
Standing and walking on two legs
Organism composed of
Organ Systems
Organ Systems composed of
Organs
Organs composed of
Tissues
Tissues composed of
Cells
Cells composed of
Organelles
Organelles composed of
Molecules
Molecules composed of
Atoms
Single, complete individual
Organism
A group of organs with a unique collective function such as circulation, respiration or digestion
Organ System
Structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular function
Organ
A mass of similar cells and cell products that form a discrete region of an organ and performs a specific function. The body is composed of only four primary classes: epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscular.
Tissue
The smallest units of an organism that carry out all the basic functions of of life.
Nothing simpler is considered alive.
Cells
Microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual functions.
Examples include; mitochondria, centrioles, and lysosomes.
Organelles
A particle composed of at least two atoms.
Molecules
The smallest particles with unique identities
Atoms
Large, complex systems can be understood by studying their simpler components. A method of scientific study that focuses on predicting evolutionary change by actually dissecting the organism and studying all of its parts as individual items.
(Example)
Reductionism
Ex. Wants to know how the organ works; a neurologist will take the human brain out to study it
The complementary theory that there are “emergent properties” of the whole organism that cannot be predicted from the properties of its separate parts. Human beings are more than the sum of their parts. Argues that predictions of evolutionary change is not possible without considering the organism as a whole.
(Example)
Holism
(Example: A psychologist will study the body as a whole; a healthcare provider treats not merely an organ system but a whole person)
Cell Theory
- Cell is the simplest structural and functional unit of life
- Cells come only from pre-existing cells
- All organisms composed of cells and cell products
Cell will shrink or shrivel because it has the energy to do so.
(Programmed cell death; the normal death of cells that have completed their function)
Apoptosis
Cell is going to explode because it’s extended all its energy.
(Pathological tissue death due to such causes as infection, trauma, or hypoxia).
Necrosis
- Composed of phospholipid bilayer
- Border of the cell
- Appears as a pair of dark parallel lines when viewed with electron microscope
- Has intracellular and extracellular faces
Functions:
- Define cell boundaries
Governs interactions with other cells
Controls passage of materials in and out of cell
The Plasma Membrane
Gives cell structure and prevents the cell membrane from collapsing in on the cell.
(Similar to cytoskeleton)
Cholesterol
- Network of protein filaments and cylinders
- Determines cell shape, supports structure, organizes cell contents, directs movement of materials within cell, contributes to movements of the cell as a whole
- Composed of: microfilaments, intermediate fibers, microtubules
- Prevents cell from caving in on itself
Similar to cholesterol
Cytoskeleton
- Largest organelle (5 Mm in diameter)
- Most cells have one nucleus
- A few cell types are anuclear or multinucleate
Nucleus
No nucleus; red blood cells
Anuclear
Have several nuclei; skeletal and cardiac muscle
Multinucleate
- Double membrane around nucleus
- Perforated by nuclear pores formed by rings of proteins
- Regulate molecular traffic through envelope
- Hold the two membrane layers together
Nuclear Envelope
System of channels (cisternae) enclosed by membrane
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
- Parallel, flattened sacs covered with ribosomes
- Continuous with outer membrane of nuclear envelope
- Produces phospholipids and proteins of the plasma membrane
- Synthesizes proteins that are packaged in other organelles or secreted from cell
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)
Three categories of substances that can NOT enter the cell on their own
- Hydrophillic
- High molecular weight
- Charged Particles
Three categories of substances that can NOT enter the cell on their own, can either pass through
Membrane channel or vesicles
Contrast smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum
- Smooth ER: Has ribosomes dispersed in an area surrounding the structure itself
- Rough ER: Has its ribosomes studded on its membrane
- Small granules of protein and RNA
- Found in nucleoli, in cytosol, and on outer surfaces or rough ER, and nuclear envelope
- Small and large sub-unit
Ribosomes
- A system of cisternae that synthesizes carbohydrates and puts finishing touches on protein synthesis
- Some vesicles become lysosomes
- Some vesicles migrate to plasma membrane and fuse to it
- Some become secretory vesicles that store a protein product for later release
Golgi Complex (Apparatus)
- Packages of enzymes bound by a membrane
- Generally round, but variable in shape
Lysosomes
- Resemble lysosomes but contain different enzymes and are produced by endoplasmic reticulum
- In all cells, but abundant in liver and kidney
Peroxisomes
Hollow, cylindrical organelle that disposes of surplus proteins
Proteosomes
- Organelles specialized for synthesizing ATP
- Continually change shape from spheroidal to thread-like
- Surrounded by a double membrane
- Inner membrane has folds called cristae
- Spaces between cristae called matrix
- Matrix contains ribosomes, enzymes used for ATP synthesis, small circular DNA molecule
- “Powerhouses” of the cell
- Energy is extracted from organic molecules and transferred to ATP
Mitochondria
A short cylindrical assembly of microtubules arranged in nine groups of three microtubules each
Centriole
Move tings outside the cell
Ex. Sweeps things along nose and throat
Cilia
Moves cell side to side
Flagella
At the end of the axon (nerve fiber) is the
Telendria
At the end of the Telendria is the
Axon terminal bulbs
Holds neuro transmitters
Houses vesicles
Found in an epithelium that is predominantly non secretory (Can be exocrine or endocrine)
Unicellular Glands
Compare/Contrast between the simple coiled tubular (sweat gland), compound acinar (mammary gland), and compound tubuloacinar (pancreas)
When you move backwards from the pancreas to the mammary you see a decrease in the surface area of the secretory portion.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Epidermis
Deeper connective tissue layer
Dermis
Connective tissue layer below dermis (not part of skin, but associated with it)
Hypodermis
- Highly vascularized
- Possesses hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands
- Epidermis about 0.1 mm thick
Thin Skin
- Has an extra layer
- Has sweat glands, but no hair follicles or sebaceous (oil) glands
- Epidermis 0.5 mm thick
Thick Skin
Responsible for detecting pressure
Pacinian receptors
Touch receptors
Tectile Receptors
Thin skin contains ________ strata (layers)
Four
Thick skin contains _______ strata (layers)
Five
Two layers of the Dermis
Papillary and Reticular
- Deeper and thicker layer of dermis
- Consists of dense, irregular connective tissue
- Responsible for producing stretch marks
(Stretch marks (Striae): tears in the collagen fibers caused by stretching of the skin due to pregnancy or obesity)
Reticular Layer
- Superficial zone of dermis
- Thin zone of areolar tissue in and near the dermal papilla
- Allows for mobility of leukocytes and other defense cells
- Rich in small blood vessels
Papillary Layer
Hair does not cover
Palms, soles of our feet, palmar, plantar, lateral surfaces, digital segment of fingertips and toes, lips, nipples and parts of genitals
Three types of hair
- Lanugo
- Vellus
- Terminal
Fine, downy, unpigmented hair that appears on the fetus in the last 3 months of development (fetus/infant)
Lanugo
Longer, coarser, and more heavily pigmented. (Eyebrows, eyelashes, the hair of the scalp, male facial hair and some of the hair on the trunk and limbs)
Terminal
Fine, pale hair that replaces lanugo by time of birth. (2/3 of women hair, 1/10 of men hair, all hair of children except eyebrows, eyelashes, and hair of the scalp)
Vellus
Layers of the epidermis
- Stratum Basale (deepest epidermal layer)
- Stratum Spinosum
- Stratum Granulosum
- Stratum Lucidum
- Stratum Corneum (surface layer)
Growth zone (mitotic) of thickened stratum basalt at proximal end of nail
Nail Matrix
Narrow zone of dead skin overhanging proximal end of nail
Eponychium
Begins as a protein-free filtrate of blood plasma, produced by deep secretory portion of gland.
Sweat
- Inhibits bacterial growth
- Perspiration is about 99%
- Has a pH ranging from 4 to 6
Acid Mantle
How are merocrine glands more numerous than apocrine glands?
Merocrine glands are found all over the body rather than just the genitalia and under arm area
Are flask-shaped and have short ducts opening into hair follicles
Sebaceous Glands
Oily secretion of sebaceous glands
Sebum
Ceriuminous glands are simple, coiled, tubular gland in the
External ear canal
Cerumen
- Earwax
- Keeps eardrum pliable
- Waterproofs the canal
- Kills bacteria
Modified apocrine sweat glands (responsible for breast milk)
Mammary glands
_______ rows of mammary glands in most mammals
Two
Why are hair, nails, and cutaneous glands called accessory structures of the skin?
You can live without them and don’t necessarily need them to continue life
Pliable ___________ keratin makes up stratum corneum of skin
Soft
Compact ____________ keratin makes up hair and nails. Tougher and more compact due to numerous cross linkage between keratin molecules
Hard
Pilus
Another name for a hair
Plural of pilus
Pili
What is a vestigial structure?
A structure that was once important to structure and function of the organism but as a result of evolution is no longer needed.
Why is hair considered a vestigial structure?
Before the ice age, cavemen needed hair to keep their bodies warm because they couldn’t make coats. The purpose of hair back then was to provide warmth to the body. There was an abundance of hair all over the body, and today we doing need hair because we have coats
