anatomy and physiology Flashcards

Question

Explain how fats are transported in the blood?

Answer 1

Fats are transported to tissues where they are used for energy or stored Fats are transported packaged with proteins called lipoproteins

Answer 2

Blood also transport hormones e.g: adrenaline and insulin Chemicals produced in endocrine gland Travel into the blood to target organs which trigger a response

Answer 3

Blood transports oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and the tissues Oxygen is required by the tissues for respiration and carbon dioxide is a waste product of respiration that need to be removed In the tissues oxygen is released, haemoglobin is reformed Erythrocytes contain an iron-rich protein called haemoglobin which combines with oxygen to produce haemoglobin

Answer 4

LDL's and HDL's

Answer 5

HDL prevent the deposit left by LDL’s

Answer 6

LDLs deposit fats and cholesterol in the walls of arteries

Answer 7

proteins called enzymes

Answer 8

If the temperature gets too high then enzymes will change shape (denature)

Answer 9

If the temperature is too low then the enzymes (slow down) and will not work well enough for a reaction to occur

Answer 10

Optimum temperature for a good body is 37’c

Answer 11

Heat is produced in the cells but mostly in the muscles

Answer 12

Blood removes the heat and circulates this heat around the body

Answer 13

Combating infection is the role of the immune system

Answer 14

Bacteria and parasites will be recognised as threats by cells such as neutrophils and b-lymphocytes , which act as antigens, they form special proteins called antibodies. These lock onto specific chemicals in the walls of the bacteria and parasites, immobilizing them and making them target monocytes that then kill and breakdown. Special lycophytes remember these particular pathogens and will respond quickly if there is a re-infection

Answer 15

When skin is exposed to air foreign material, tiny cell fragments from the bone marrow called platelets, activate a chain reaction called coagulation They converts the soluble blood protein fibrinogen into insoluble from fibrin creating a net-like structure trapping both platelets and erythrocytes to form a clot The platelets also activate the immune response minimising the threat of a pathogenic invasion

Answer 16

breathing in

Answer 17

breathing out

Answer 18

Each lung is enclosed with a double membrane Space between two membranes called pleural cavity and is filled with small amount of pleural fluid Fluid lubricates the surface so two pleural layers will slide over each other allowing the lungs to move Also protects the lungs from friction as the move

Answer 19

Medulla oblongata sends signals to the external intercostal muscles and diaphragm contracts The ribcage is forced up and out As the diaphragm contracts it flattens, pressing down on digestive organs Pleural membrane attach lungs to ribcage and diaphragm As lung are stretched opens microscopic alveoli for gaseous exchange Stretching lungs increases the volume decreasing air pressure within the lungs below atmosphere outside the lungs Results in air rushing into lung to balance air pressure

Answer 20

The reserse happens The medulla oblongata stops sending signals so diaphragm stop contracting Diaphragm lifts back into dome shape and intercostal muscles pull ribcage in and down Decreases volume in the lung so air pressure in lungs is greater Forced carbon dioxide out of lungs so deflate

Answer 21

Process involves exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between capillaries and alveoli

Answer 22

smallest blood vessels and carry blood between arteries and veins

Answer 23

Alveoli- tiny air sacs at the end of the bronchioles

Answer 24

Walls are thin- minimum distance for gases to pass Moist walls- gases dissolve in the moisture helping them to pass across exchange surfaces Large number of air sacs- capillaries making larger surface area

Answer 25

Substance will move down a concentration gradient from areas of high to low concentration until the same concentration. During inspiration air is sucked into the lungs filling the alveoli which means a higher concentration of oxygen in the alveoli than the capillaries. Capillaries surrounding the alveoli have a lower concentration of oxygen. Results in a diffusion in oxygen.

Answer 26

Red blood cell Biconcave shape or large surface area No nucleus to fit more haemoglobin Red protein

Answer 27

Red protein Carry oxygen around the body Makes oxyhaemoglobin

Answer 28

Component of blood Liquid Carries blood cells

Answer 29

Air suced intoo the lungs Inflates the alveoli High concentration of oxygen in the alveoli Low concentration of oxygen in blood capillaries Oxygen diffuses from alveoli into the blood through capillaries

Answer 30

Oxygen diffuses into blood and combines with haemoglobin in erythrocytes to form oxyhaemoglobin Carbon dioxide in blood diffuses in the opposite direction Plasma transports CO2 which is then passed off to the lungs during expiration

Answer 31

Oxygen diffuses into blood and combines with haemoglobin in erythrocytes to form oxyhaemoglobin Carbon dioxide in blood diffuses in the opposite direction Plasma transports CO2 which is then passed off to the lungs during expiration

Answer 32

Too much acidic carbon dioxide in our blood is harmful and can stop our body cells from working properly.

Answer 33

Pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the capillaries in the lungs Gaseous exchange happens and the blood becomes oxygenated The pulmonary vein then carries the oxygenated blood back to the heart to be pumped around the body

Answer 34

Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between capillaries and alveoli. Process is aided by three adaptations that include; thin, moist, scas. Diffusion gradient high to low Blood then circulates the oxygen to the body while carbon dioxide is exhaled during expiration

Answer 35

main artery in the body: it leaves from the heart to the left ventricle

Answer 36

carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs

Answer 37

largest veins in the body, carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs (superior and inferior)

Answer 38

carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium

Answer 39

frist valve that blood encounters as it enters the heart from the tissues, allows blood to move only from the right atrium to the left ventricle preventing it from going back

Answer 40

found on the left hand side of the heart. Found between the left atrium and left ventricle.

Answer 41

at the opening from right ventricle into the pulmonary artery, prevents blood moving backwards into right ventricle

Answer 42

found at the exit of the left ventricle where the aorta begins

Answer 43

Cells are the building blocks | Provide structure from the body, taking nutrients into energy and carry out function

Answer 44

Take place in the mitochondria Mitochondria use enzymes to convert glucose into ATP ATP is a high energy molecule found in the cell Mitochondria have a inner membrane on which enzymes are embedded This membrane is highly folded to increase the surface are on which respiration takes place

Answer 45

Atp provides immediate source of energy for biological process ATP is formed when ADP combines with energy released when we break down glucose ATP can then be quickly broken down back to ADP breakdown releases the main energy source of the cell

Answer 46

Takes place without oxygen and releases less energy because glucose molecules are only partially broken down During exercise, cells are deprived of oxygen but still need energy. The body response by converting glucose into lactic acid and energy into ‘oxygen debt’ Lactic acid causes muscle cramps, when exercises stop oxygen debt and oxidising the lactic acid

Answer 47

Process that occurs in the cytoplasm during aerobic and anaerobic Process breaks down glucose and forms pyruvate with 2ATP Pyruvate is a molecules involved in energy generation can be converted into lactic acid or broken to water and carbon dioxide when oxygen is present

Answer 48

Pyruvic acid supplies energy to cells through the krebs cycle when oxygen is present through aerobic respiration When oxygen is lacking needs to be oxidised later to form carbon dioxide and water to prevent build up

Answer 49

``` Allergens Dust Exercise Stress Infection ```

Answer 50

Cause bronchi to become inflamed and more sensitive Causes the airways to narrow as the muscles in the bronchi tighten Tightening causes lining to be swollen produce airways being blocked

Answer 51

Results in wheezes, short of breath has a tight and will coughing alot If symptoms continue they will have an asthma attack A severe asthma attack will reduce amount of air reaching the lungs lip and fingertips may go blue showing lack of oxygen

Answer 52

Large vessels that carry blood away from the heart, they have thick walls They outside wall of arteries are thicker than veins of the vein because they have to be able to withstand greater pressure Larger amounts of elastin in them means they can stretch as the blood is forced out

Answer 53

Vessels that connect arteries to capillaries, they are smaller versions of arteries with muscular walls Smaller in diameter than arteries, controlling the flow of blood into capillaries

Answer 54

Vessels that are one cell thick, which enables nutrients and gases to pass through them Thinnest vessels Site where oxygen, carbon dioxide and nutrient pass from the blood to the tissues Pressure in the capillaries is much lower so that diffusion can occur

Answer 55

Vessels with a large lumen with valves inside to prevent the backflow of blood Returning the blood back to the heart Much thinner walls than the arteries and the lumen is larger in veins than arteries The veins contain pocket valves to prevent backflow to blood

Answer 56

Venules connect capillaries to veins; they are smaller various of veins without valves Pressure is much less than in arteries

Answer 57

blow into a machine that measures how fast you can breath out and how much you can hold in your lungs, measures maximum forced expiration, indicates functional ability of lungs

Answer 58

monitors how fast you can breathe out compared to ‘normal range’, indicates degree of dilation in airways, readings need to be taken twice a day to see if medication is working.

Answer 59

Net movement of molecules down a concentration gradient Allows small molecules to cross plasma membrane Sugars and proteins can freely pass

Answer 60

Tissue fluid is yellowish liquid made from blood plasma It bathes all cells and acts as transport medium between blood and cells It supplies nutrients to tissues and returns carbon dioxide and other material from surrounding tissue

Answer 61

As the capillaries are narrower than the arterioles, a pressure builds up which forces water out of the blood plasma=hydrostatic pressure The pressure is resisted by: The lower water potential of the blood, caused by plasma proteins that are too large to leave the capillaries. This is called osmotic pressure. Overall, pressure pushes water and small molecules out of the capillary leaving cells and large proteins behind. Return of tissue to the circulatory system. Most water is returned to the blood plasma via the capillaries. The loss of water from the capillaries at the arteriole and reduces the hydrostatic pressure inside them. Osmotic forces resulting from the blood pressure in the plasma pull water back into capillaries via osmosis as the water potential in the capillary at the venule end is lower. Remaining tissue enters the lymph vessels-drain back into the veins close to the heart

Answer 62

``` Age Family history High salt intake Lack of exercise Being overweight Smoking,drinking and drugs ```

Answer 63

When the heart pumps blood into your arteries it creates a pressure called blood pressure(bp) This pressure is at its highest when the heart is contracting lower when relaxing. The two pressures, called the systolic and diastolic pressures respectively, can be measured using a sphygmomanometer. The readings are normally taken in the aim using the brachial artery. Normal blood pressure is difficult for diffrent age groups

Answer 64

Blood pressure is recorded as two numbers The systolic pressure( the higher number) is the force at which your heart pumps blood around the body. The diastolic pressure ( the lower number ) is the resistance to blood flow in the blood vessels and the pressure when your heart rests between beats They are both measured in millimeters of mercury.

Answer 65

Hypertension is a long term medical condition which causes blood pressure in the arteries which is persistently elevated

Answer 66

Heart attacks Strokes aneurysms Metabolic syndrome Weakened and narrowed blood vessels in kidneys- prevents from making them work properly. Dementia- limit blood flow to the brain narrow or torn blood vessels in the eyes.

Answer 67

Blood pressure needs to be taken and recorded Change in diet Regular exercise Medications eg ace inhibitors and beta blockers to slow the heart down.

Answer 68

Respiratory diseases are one of the biggest causes of death worldwide. Respiratory disease affects the lungs, bronchi, trachea and throat. They can be mild such as a cold or life-threatening eg pneumonia or lung cancer. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder(COPD) is a term for a group of diseases that cause a reduction in the airflow in the lungs and which are not fully reversed Two of the more serious types of COPD are chronic bronchitis and lymphedema and are both caused by smoking.

Answer 69

Emphysema is a gradual breakdown of alveolar walls and damage to terminal bronchioles and alveolar capillaries. This can lead to additional infection. This reduces the efficiency of gas exchange , causing constant breathlessness and hyperventilation.

Answer 70

Shortlessness of breath Yellow spit Persistent cough that never goes Frequent chest infections

Answer 71

Main cause is smoking cigarettes. If a person were to smoke for a larger period of time, they are more likely to develop the disease. Genetics also are likely to play a part. A person can also get it from second hand smoking.

Answer 72

``` Sleepness can lead to anxiety and depression Isolated Can't take part in activities Might not want to go out Fatigue May have to change lifestyle Might lead to lose of relationships Feelings of remorse ```

Answer 73

There is no single test for emphysema. Diagnosis depends on taking into account a patient's risk factor(eg weather they smoke, their age) their symptoms and clinical tests Testing the patient's lung function using spirometry is essential. It can determine whether there are airway obstructions and can help exclude the possibilities of other respiratory diseases such as asthma or lung cancer. MRI and CT scans: these are scans that produce high resolution detailed images of the chest and can be repeated over time to monitor changes in condition. High resolution CT scans is the most sensitive method of detecting emphysema.

Answer 74

Allows doctors to see where in the lungs the disease is located Can allow for better management of symptoms.

Answer 75

Diagnosis and monitoring can be carried out by spirometry. You blow into a machine that measures how fast you can breathe out and how much air you can hold in your lungs. It can measure maximum forced expiration(expiratory volume)-indicates the functional ability of the lungs

Answer 76

``` Stopping smoking physiotherapy /pulmonary rehabilitation Oxygen therapy Medication surgery ```

Answer 77

Stopping smoking is the single most important step in showing the decline in lung function in people with COPD. Medicines commonly prescribed to treat COPD include bronchodilators, which widen the airways by relaxing smooth muscles, and corticosteroids, which act as anti- inflammatories oxygen therapy especially for people with emphysema, may be required for most of each. The treatment is to stabilize the condition and treat any complications not to cure the disease.

Answer 78

Also called pulmonary rehabilitation- a specialised programme of exercise and education designed to improve lung function. It is designed to increase the amount of exercise, the patient can do before they feel out of breath, as well as improve your symptoms, self confidence and emotional well being. A typical programme includes Physical activity training tailored to the patients needs and ability Education about the condition Dietary advice Psychological and emotional support

Answer 79

Pulmonary rehabilitation therapy can also be included as a form of oxygen therapy Oxygen therapy is advised if the patients oxygen levels in the blood are too low however, it does not stop the main symptoms of COPD such as breathlessness There are 2 main types Ambulatory oxygen therapy- the use of portable oxygen when walking or other activities. Long term oxygen therapy-the use of oxygen at home from a portable oxygen tank taken through a mask or nasal tubes. Should be used for 16 hours a day.

Answer 80

Steroids can be used in addition to using inhalers. These will relieve symptoms by reducing inflammation Antibiotics can be given to treat secondary bacterial infections that could lead to death for example pneumonia Myoclonic agents can be used to help lesson mucous.

Answer 81

This is only an option for a very small subset of people for whom other treatments have not worked The damage part of the lung can be removed to help prevent future infections it does not cure emphysema A lung transplant is another option- but this is dangerous surgery and the patient would have to take anti rejection drugs for the rest of their lives

Answer 82

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is a disease of the arteries supplying the heart, coronary arteries almost one fifth of all deaths in the uk in 2005 were due to CHD. The major cause of CHD is atherosclerosis which is a thickening arteries caused by buildup of fatty plaques on the inside walls Atherosclerosis can eventually lead to a reduced blood flow to the tissues with potentially fatal consequences.

Answer 83

Breathlessness nausea dizziness Chest pains Feeling tight in arm and may spread to arms, neck and jaw

Answer 84

Light head, feeling weak, sweating Shortness of breath Chest pain can move to chest jaw neck arms and back

Answer 85

``` Diet Smoking Lack of exercise Type 2 diabetes High blood pressure High cholesterol ```

Answer 86

``` Age Gender Genetics Type 1 diabetes Family history ```

Answer 87

angiogram | ECG

Answer 88

A type of x-ray used to examine blood vessels As blood vessels don't show up in normal x rays The dye is injected through the catheter and that's the blood vessels Usually take 2 hours

Answer 89

Looks at your heart rate and the electrical activity in the brain Records 12 diffrent views of your electrical activity Need to relax before to ensure reading is reliable.

Answer 90

Inherited condition that causes sticky mucus to build up in lungs and digestive system Causes lung infections and problems with digesting food

Answer 91

Lung problems- recurring chest infections, inflammation of the airways,coughing,wheezing shortness of breath Digestive system- diarrhea, diabetes and malnutrition, babies may be born with bowel obstruction

Answer 92

Present at birth and cause by a defect of the chromosome 7 gene that controls the movement of salt and water The defective gene is called the CFTR gene The chromosome of the cell are in the nucleus and carry genetic information 23 pairs one set of chromosomes are inherited from our mum and other from dad CF is caused by a recessive allele The affected person will need 2 copies of the mutation this means both parents must be carriers If the child only inharrites one they will be a carrier but not have CF Usually the genes is involved in making protein that transports salt and water in and out the cell but in people with CF this protein doesn't work properly and instead results in a build up of sticky mucus this blooks the bronchioles and prevent efficient movement of gases in and out the lungs Mucus is also produced in digestive and reproductive system impairing their function and resulting in weight gain, reduce fertility

Answer 93

No cure over the years the lu7ngs become damaged and may eventually stop working Symptoms- chest infections, coughing and wheezing, shortness of breath and inflammation Digestive problems- diarrhea, bowel obstruction Average life expectancy is reduced

Answer 94

The buccal cavity is where we put the food It is where food is chewed to break it down. It is also known as the oral cavity

Answer 95

The salivary glands produce saliva, which helps moisten food and make it easy to swallow.

Answer 96

The epiglottis is a flap of cartilage behind the root of the tounge which covers the opening of the windpipe when swallowing food

Answer 97

The esophagus is a muscular tube that connects the throat with the stomach, down through the esophagus to the stomach pelistatus a squeezing action by the muscles helps the food move downwards in the stomach.

Answer 98

The stomach is a sac with muscular walls that churn the food to break it up. It produces hydrochloric acid and enzymes to digest the food.

Answer 99

The small intestine is the duodenum, here the food partially digested by the stomach, now called chyme is chemically altered by fluids from the liver and bile from the pancreas, the duodenum is lined with bile, which are finger like projections in the intestinal wall that increase the surface area and help the absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.

Answer 100

The large intestine or colon reabsorbs fluids and processes waste products in the preparation for elimination from the body.

Answer 101

The rectum is the last part of the colon and links it to the anus it stores faeces until they can be expelled from the body

Answer 102

The anus in the opening in the body through which the faeces are expelled by the process of defection. The anul sphinker muscle controls the opening and closing of the anus

Answer 103

The liver processes and eliminates toxins. It processes and eliminates metabolic waste. It stores vitamins and minerals, it produces many kinds of proteins

Answer 104

The gallbladder is a small pouch that sits under the liver, the gallbladder stores bile produced by the liver. After meals, the gallbladder is empty and flat like a deflated balloon. Before a meal, the gallbladder may be full of bile and about the size of a small pear

Answer 105

The common bile duct is a small, lube like structure, it physiological role is to carry bile from the gallbladder and empty in the upper part of the small intestine

Answer 106

The pancreas is a six inch long gland located in your abdominal near your liver and part of the small intestine. The pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon that are vital to regulating your glucose level insulin= lower blood sugar glucagon= increase blood glucose

Answer 107

Cartilage- rubber like padding which protects the ends of the long bones, reduces friction

Answer 108

Epiphyseal line- the part of the long bone which replaces the growth plate once a person reaches adult height

Answer 109

Periosteum- the membrane which covers the outer surface of the bone below the skin

Answer 110

compact/ spongy bone- compact bone is denser to create harder structure in middle of bone/ spongy bones at the end of long bones after softer,weaker and more flexible

Answer 111

Medullary cavity- central cavity of the bone where bone marrow is stored, this is the site of the blood cells

Answer 112

Blood vessels- part of the circulatory system and transport blood around the body

Answer 113

Osteocytes- matrix of bone cell which maintains the bone

Answer 114

Canaliculi- small passages where the exchange of nutrients takes place

Answer 115

Synovial joints are highly mobile joints, like shoulder and knee Synovial joints contain synovial fluid which is retained inside a pocket called the synovial membrane. This lubricates or ‘oils’ the joints Smooth covering of cartilage at the ends of the bones stopping them rubbing together and provide some shock absorption

Answer 116

Immovable or fixed joint (fibrous) These joints are held together by tough tissue develops during childhood Examples include: cranium, pelvis and vertebrae Slightly moveable joints (cartilaginous) Here movement is needed but only to a certain point Vertebral column Freely moveable joints (synovial) These joints are also called synovial and allow movement to take place

Answer 117

A joint is place where two or more bones meet Without joints, our skeleton would not be able to move The bones at joints are bound together by strong flexible fibres called ligaments Ligaments allow movement but make sure the joint doesn't move too far to prevent injury Tendons connect muscle to bone allowing the bones to move

Answer 118

Fails to explain the causes of street crime Cannot explain while collar and corporate crime Some accuse NLR of racializing crime turning it into a black issue box - focuses too much on street crime and ignored the fact that police can be selective in areas

Answer 119

``` Improve policing and control Community policing/service Cctv More ethnic minority police multi - agency approach Dealing with structured issues ```

Answer 120

Develop as a critique of new criminology Wanted a realistic solution to crime Accept official stats- we and black male do commit more crime Evidence w.c are victims as well as offenders Subculture- develop amongst group who suffer relative deprivation marginalisation - refers to a group in society who feel more deprived than others. Feel like they have no voice. Relative deprivation- poor become aware of their low status and the fact they are poor. State- losing the fight against crime and there is a loss in public confidence Informal controls- fear of stigmatisation and rejection are more likely to reduce crime. Victim- concern for the consequences of crime for victims and neighbours Offenders- avoid romanticising the criminals, but must not excuse the criminals

Answer 121

``` Medication has side effects Need to attend regular check ups Dietary changes Regular exercise Take care to avoid fractures Loss of height Coping with pain May be immobile May need to use a wheelchair Recovery from surgery Home adaptations ```

Answer 122

Arthroscopy- to clean out joints Arthroplasty- joint replacement Osteotomy- where bone is cut and re-aligned

Answer 123

Joint manipulation- to maintain flexibility Assistance equipment- taking the weight of your joints Use of tens- electrical impulses that can reduce pain

Answer 124

Steroids and NSAID- reduce swelling and inflammation in joints Painkillers - paracetamol Corticosteroid- injections into the joint to reduce swelling Supplement- to alleviate symptoms

Answer 125

Clinical observation- range of tests such as blood pressure, temperature and movement of joint Blood tests- use to test for RF, group of proteins your body creates when your immune system attacks healthy tissue

Answer 126

Symptoms Vary from person to person they may come and go and change overtime Throbbing pain,aching,stiff joints. Joints can swell and become hot and tender to touch Firm swelling called rheumatoid nodules can also develop under the skin around the affected joint Biological explanation The immune system mistakenly attack the cells that line the joints The synovial membrane that lines and lubricates the joints becomes inflamed and sore. Tnhis inflammation gradually destroys the cartilage As scar tissue replaces the cartilage the joints becomes misshapen and rigid Rheumatoid arthritis:causes The exact cause is yet unknown.one theory is a virus or infection triggers the condition This causes the autoimmune response in which the body attacks its own tissue by sending antibodies to the lining of the joints where they attack the tissue surrounding the joint There is some evidence that it could be inherited through this risk is thought to be very low in genes play a very small role in the condition

Answer 127

Symptoms Joints become painful and stiff often in the knees, hips and small joint of the hands Joint tenderness and increased pain if the joint has not been moved in a while There can be a cracking noise or grating sensation at the joint Limited range of movement at the joint Joints can appear more ‘knobbly’ than usual Biological explanation Generally wear and tear of the joints is usually repaired by the body unnoticed but with osteoarthritis the cartilage can be lost Bony growth develop and the area can become inflamed Cartilage is firm,rubbery material that covers the ends of the bones in normal joints Its function is to act as a ‘shock absorber’ and allows the joints to move smoothly With osteoarthritis the cartilage becomes stiff lose elasticity and may wear overtime As the cartilage deteriorates tendons and ligaments stretch and eventually the bones rub against each other causing pain Osteoarthritis: causes Not a normal part of ageing Risk of developing it does increase as a young get older but mostly it runs in families Being overweight or obese puts strain on the weight bearing joints ans so osteoarthritis can develop in a joint damage by an injury or ooperation If joint is not given enough time to heal after surgery or injury it can lead to it in later life

Answer 128

When the body enter the blood they are not taken off around the body Assimilation is the movement of digested food molecules into cells of the body where they are used so they become part of the cells Any excess glucose that is absorbed is transported to the liver. Here it is converted into strong molecule glycon Glucose can also used by the liver in respiration The liver is the place where the toxins are broken down

Answer 129

Sugars,amino acids,minerals and water soluble vitamins enter the body via diffusion This can either be simple diffusion or facilitated diffusion. This means the movement from an area of high to low concentration Fatty acids and glycerol recombine as fats once absorbed by the villus and move into the lacteal along with fats When the products enter the blood they are not taken off around the body. They move fast to the liver via the hepatic portal vein

Answer 130

Each cell in the villi has microvilli these finger like extension of the cell membrane and increases the surface area of the cells to increase absorption Each villi has a large network of capillaries close to the wall to reduce the distance nutrients have to travel to get to the blood Each villi also has a lacteal, these lymphatic vessels which transport the product of fats absorption

Answer 131

absorption refers to how the nutrients extracted from food are absorbed in the bloodstream Almost all the nutrients are absorbed into the blood in the small intestine, which have many adaptations that allow them to carry out their functions

Answer 132

The small intestine have villi-projection made up of a large number of cells These increase surface area of the small intestine and allow more space for absorption

Answer 133

Health condition that weakens bones making them fragile and more likely to break. Develops over several years and is often only diagnosed when fall

Answer 134

Often there are no obvious symptoms until after a minor fall or sudden impact causes a fracture The most common features are the ones of the wrist, hip and vertebra (spinal bones). For someone with very advanced osteoporosis, ecen minor activity, such as a sneeze or a cough, can be enough to cause a fracture.

Answer 135

honeycomb structure which provides strength so bone can have support our weight

Answer 136

measurement of the amount of calcium and other minerals in a segment of bone

Answer 137

menopause is when a women stop having periods and is no longer able to get pregnant

Answer 138

Osteoporosis is due to the loss of protein matrix from the bone resulting in a loss of bone density. The condition weakness bones so they become brittle, more porous( lower bone mass) with more holes. Bones naturally become thinner with age, particularly in women, who lose bone rapidly in the first few years after menopause. This is because the hormone oestrogen( which promotes bone formation) declines in production after menopause.

Answer 139

Losing bone is a normal part of the ageing process, but sometimes can lead to osteoporosis Risk factors include Family history of the condition, or of hip fracture Heavy drinking and smoking Having an eating disorder such as anorexia Long term use of medications that affect bones strength such as corticosteroids used for asthma or arthritis Having other conditions such as rectinol arthritis Lifestyle factors such as diet and exercise can determine how healthy the bones are.

Answer 140

Bone density scans E.g DEXA scan which measures calcium levels in the bone. This produces a T score which can be compared to a healthy person of the same age Blood tests determine the progression of the malfunction. Fracture of an unusual bone, for example the wrist, shoulder or vertebrae

Answer 141

Taking calcium and vitamin D Taking HRT( hormone replacement therapy)- the hormones estrogen and or progesterone prescribed to post menopausal women Taking bisphosphonates, which slow the rate at which bone is broken down in the body so as to maintain bone density and reduce the risk of fracture. They are given as an injection or tablet form, and can have side effects Having physiotherapy

Answer 142

``` Medication has side effects Need to attend regular check ups Delay changes Regular exercise needed Take care to avoid fractures Loss of height Coping with pain( lack of sleep) May be immobilie May need to use a walking aid Recovery surgery Home adaptations ```

Answer 143

``` Stomach pain and cramping Changes in bowel Bloating and swelling in the stomach Excessive wind known as flatulence Sudden need to go to the toilet Feeling that the bowel has not fully emptied Mucus passing the anus ```

Answer 144

Move through the digestive system to slowly or too fast Too slowly- results in constipated because too much water is absorbed by the small intestine making it hard Too quickly- results in diarrhea because not enough water is absorbed by the small intestine Problems with the absorption of bile during the digestive process may be the cause

Answer 145

Believed to be an increase in sensitivity of the gut to certain foods Related with problems digesting the food Tend to be triggered by something they have eaten of drunk

Answer 146

ultrasound | gastroscopy

Answer 147

Can be used to examine the liver and other organs in the abdomen and pelvis A lubricating gel is used on the skin to allow smooth movement of a small hand-held probe which is moved over the body part that is being examined

Answer 148

Exams oesophagus,stomach and duodenum This uses a long flexible tube called an endoscope Has a video camera at one end Can be inserted in a natural opening in the mouth or anus It can be uncomfortable so a local anaesthetic spray is used It takes around an hour

Answer 149

To avoid diarrhea- Cut down on all fibre foods like whole foods Avoid products that contain a sweetener sorbitol To avoid bloating - Avoid foods that are hard to digest Eat up to 1 tablespoon of linseeds a day

Answer 150

Abdominal pain and discomfort from bloating may estric sleep leading to tiredness May be restricted on trips by needing the toilet and socialising Flatulence may be embarrassing and reduce confidence Can restrict diet Coffee and fizzy drinks can cause irritation in the gut so need to be avoided May need to avoid stressful situations Need to keep a food diary to identify foods Take regular exercise

Answer 151

The nervous system receives and transmits and responses to information from the external environment and from the body's internal environment through a collection of nerve cells Nerves are specialised cells that carry messages from one part of the body to another as ting electrical signals These messages are known as nerve impulses

Answer 152

Refers to the body's control centre It consists of the brain and the spinal cord The spinal cord connects the brain to every area in the body by nerve cells

Answer 153

The spinal cord is a bundle of nerve fibres and tissue that connect nearly all parts of the body to the brain It is protected by specialised bones called the vertebrae They have a hollow centre so fibres can run through

Answer 154

CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system is any other nerve outside the CNS They relay information from the brain and the spinal cord to the rest of the body and visa versa They include autonomic,sensory and motor nerves

Answer 155

Involutory or unconscious You don't control this system, happen naturally without thinking This system controls and regulates: heart rate, breathing and gut movement

Answer 156

Relating to sensation or physical senses Transmit information from the senses to the brain Anything that stimulates your senses will be relayed to the brain via the sensory neurons

Answer 157

Relating to motion or physical activity | Motor neurons transmit information from the muscles from the brain resulting in movement

Answer 158

Made up of sensory and motor neurons | The sensory and motor pathways have to work together, voluntary or involuntary

Answer 159

``` Upper abdominal or back pain Indigestion vomiting yellow skin or eyes Symptoms Abdominal pain which can be sudden and severe Jaundice-yellowing of the skin and eyes Itchy skin diarrhea Loss of appetite ```

Answer 160

There unusual high levels of cholesterol inside the gallbladder There an unusually high levels of a waste product called bilirubin inside the gallbladder These chemical imbalances cause tiny crystals to develop in the bile. These can gradually grow into solid stones that can be as small as a grain of sand or as large as a pebble Sometimes only one stone will from but often several develop at the same time

Answer 161

Through the to be caused by an imbalance in the chemical makeup of bile inside the gallbladder Gallstones are more common if an individual is overweight or obese is aged over 40 years old has a condition that affects the flow of bile such as liver cirrhosis has Crohn’s disease or IBS or has a close family member who has had gall stones

Answer 162

Can be used to examine the liver and other organs in the abdomen and the pelvis A lubricating gel is used on the skin to allow smooth movement of a small hand held probe, which will move over the body part that is being examined.

Answer 163

Gives further information about the condition of the gallbladder Uses a dye which shows up in x rays The dye may be injected into the bloodstream or directly into the bile ducts during surgery or using an endoscope passed through the mouth After the dye has been introduced the x ray imGes are taken, which will reveal any abnormalities in the bile or pancreatic systems.

Answer 164

Treatment depends on how the symptoms of gallstones are affecting the individuals daily life. For someone that Doesn't have symptoms acute monitoring is recommended. This means that the individual does not receive treatment but should let their gp know if they experience any symptoms this is because if the gallstones block the gallbladder they will cause pain and nausea and treatment will be needed

Answer 165

It is sometimes possible to take tablets to remove gallstones. They are not prescribed very often because They are not always effective They need to be taken for a long time-up to 2 years Gallstones can reoccur once treatment has stopped

Answer 166

Indigestion stomach pain, bloating, flatulence, diarrhoea or constipation anaemia and loss of appetite Feeling tired all of the time as a result of malnutrition Children not growing at an expected rate and adults experiencing unexpected weight loss

Answer 167

Coeliac disease is an autoimmune disease, meaning that the immune system and mistakes a part of the body as forgein and attach it The immune system mistakes glodan a substance found in gluten a threat to the body and attacks it. This causes damage to the immune system and small intestine Antibodies produced by the immune system cause the surface of the intestine to become inflamed and the villi are flattened meaning the body cannot absorb as many nutrients Villi normally help nutrients from the food to be absorbed through the wall of the small intestine into the blood It is an autoimmune disease

Answer 168

Often runs in the family if someone who is close to the relative with the condition then their chance of developing it is so much stronger. Research as shown is strongly associated with a amember of genetic mutation that affects a group of genes HLA-DQ that are responsible for the development of the immune system. These mutated genes however are very common and so it is thought that environmental factors must trigger the condition in the person with the condition This is evidence that introducing gluten into a baby's diet before 6 months may increase their risk of developing the condition.

Answer 169

A gastroscopy exams the oespohis stomach and duodenum The procedure uses a ling, flexible tube called an endoscopy The tube has a light and a video camera at the end Endoscopes are inserted into the body through a natural opening such as the mouth or anus It can be uncomfortable so a local anesthetic spray is used to numb the throat It takes around an hour to carry out is used to investigate symptoms such as difficulty swallowing and persistent abdominal pain.

Answer 170

Give up all the foods containing gluten fore life to avoid long term damage to health Vaccination as individuals with coeliac disease are more susceptible to infection Vitamins and mineral supplements can also help correct any dietary deficiencies

Answer 171

Removes gluten from the diet by excluding wheat product, otherwise villi, will be damaged Take additional supplements there may be a deficiency until the villi regrows due to imparied absorption Read food label very carefully when shopping as flour is often used as a thickening agent Take care when eating out- look for gluten free products, most items on menu are likely to contain gluten Avoid using oil that has been used to fry gluten- there may be traces of products containing gluten egg batter

Answer 172

An action potential is the electrical signal being sent through the neurons Neurons are specialised nerve cell which transmits electrical impulses from one part of the body to another

Answer 173

Dendrites- short branch structure that receives dedinical impulses from other neurons and carry them towards the body cell

Answer 174

Axon- are long thread-like part of the neurons cell along with impulses are conducted away from cell body

Answer 175

Axon terminal- end branches of the axon they pass the message to another neuron triggered an impulse at the neurons dominical releases chemical call neurotransmitters

Answer 176

Myelin sheath- fatty white substance that surrounds the axon. It forms a protective insulating layer to prevent any electricity from leaking out

Answer 177

Nodes of ranvier- action potential will start to lose charge as it travels down the axon

Answer 178

Cell body and nucleus- each neuron has a cell body with a nucleus this controls the activity

Answer 179

The function of the synapse is to transfer electrical activity from one cell to another. The synapse has a small gap separating neurons A synapse consists of 3 elements: The presynaptic membrane The postsynaptic membrane The gap between the two membranes

Answer 180

Electrical impulses travel along axons Trigger nerve endings if the neuron to release a chemical messenger called neurotransmitter These chemical diffuse across the synapse Neurotransmitter bond with receptors molecules of the membrane of next Neuton Triggers electrical impulses to next neuron Enzymes break down the neurotransmitter so can be reabsorbed

Answer 181

Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted directly into the blood which carries them to organs and tissue of the body to exert their functions There are many types of hormones that act of diffrent aspects of their bodily functions and processes

Answer 182

Development and growth Metabolism of food items Sexual functions and reproductive growth Maintenance of body temperature

Answer 183

Hormones are secreted from the endocrine gland in the body The glands are ductless so hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream rather than by way of ducts These organs secrete hormone in microscopic amounts and it takes only very small amount to bring about major changed in the body

Answer 184

``` Pituitary gland Pineal gland Thymus Thyroid Adrenal glands Pancreas Testes Ovaires ```

Answer 185

A stroke is a serious, life threatening medical condition that happens when the blood supply to part of the brain is cut off This can cause damage to the area of the brain The sooner a person receives treatment for a stroke, the less damage is likely to happen Brain damage can significantly impact day to day function depending on which areas of the brain are damaged

Answer 186

face - may drop on one side may not be able to smile Arm- cant lift both arms and keep them their due to numbness and weakness Speech- may be slurred or garbled problems understand what your saying to them Blurred vision Loss of hearing Balance and coordination Difficulty swallowing Blinding pain

Answer 187

A stroke occurs when the supply of blood in the brain is blocked by either a clogged artery or a burst artery This deprives brain cells of oxygen and leads to brain damage as those cells start to die

Answer 188

Ischemic strokes- blood clot blocks the flow of blood and oxygen to the brain which prevents blood flow causing the cells to die

Answer 189

Haemorrhagic- known as cerebral hemorrhages. Occurs when weakened blood results in cortex burst and bleeding

Answer 190

The cerebral cortex consists of areas given over to precise sensory input or motos responses If this area die it effects may be loss of vision, speech, hearing,paralysis, difficulty swallowing among many others The impact the individuals experiences will depend on cerebral cortex damage

Answer 191

``` The main cause of hemorrhagic stroke is high blood pressure as this can weaken the arteries in the brain Other risk factors include: coronary heart disease and stress High fat diet High sugar diet Obesity Lack of exercise Smoking Excess alcohol Age 60 Family history ```

Answer 192

Due to a sudden nature of the condition, monitoring usually done after the individuals has had a stroke By monitoring the individual after they have a had a stroke, they can see how much damage is in the brain and where They can also check weather the individual is at risk of another stroke 1 in 4 stroke survivors experience a second stroke in 5 years

Answer 193

Treatments and lifestyle changes can help manage the symptoms and reduce the chances of problems A stroke can have lasting impact on daily living due to mobility issues They can also have emotional and social impacts due to feeling incompetence Emotional support- counselling/charities and support groups Living support- home help/ residential care and family support

Answer 194

alteplase - can prevent long term disability and stop clots Aspirin- medication used to treat pain Warfarin- anticoagulants for blood which prevent clots from forming Beta-blockers - medication to treat high blood pressure Statins- medicines that can lower the LDL in the cholesterol

Answer 195

Feeding tube- difficulty eating and this enables them to eat Mobility aids- walking sticks, wheelchair or dressing aids physiotherapy - therapy to strengthen muscles and bones, specialised advice on daily routine

Answer 196

Thrombectomy- remove the blood clot and resorts blood flow to brain Surgical stents- deflated balloon inserted into narrow arteries and inflamed to open

Answer 197

Liver cells create surplus amino acids, resulting in the production of urine. When it breaks down the amino acids it releases the chemical ammonia. Amino is a very poisonous chemical and can denature proteins in the cytoplasm of cells. It is therefore quickly turned into another chemical called urea. This chemical is much less toxic. The urea is released from the liver, cells and travels through the circulatory system to the kidneys which removes it. This process is called deamination. The remaining amino acid is fed into cellular respiration within the mitochondria of the liver cells, resulting in the production of ATP and heat energy.

Answer 198

Liver cells also remove poison like alcohol by breaking them into harmless components. This is a process known as detoxification. Drugs such as paracetamol are also broken down and if overused will result in liver failure

Answer 199

Liver cells breakdown and recycle red blood cells. As these cells lack a nucleus they have a limited life span of about three months after which the liver breaks them down. As the hemoglobin from red blood cells is recycled, two poisonous colored chemicals are produced billverlish and billibin that pass into the bile and out of the body. They give the characteristics colour to ur traces, which would otherwise be bile. With some forms of liver disease or with obstructures such as gallstones these chemicals cannot pass out in the bile and so pass into the blood instead. This results in a yellow tinge to the skin and the white of the eyes know as giudice

Answer 200

The removal of urea The maintenance of the balance of water levels The kidneys maintain the body's water balance controlling the water concentration of blood plasma. This keeps water input from drinking fluids and water loss constant

Answer 201

We digest proteins which means they become amino acids used to build our own proteins We cant store excess, they are taken to the liver The liver converts it into a less toxic chemical called urea This passes into the blood and travels to the kidneys One of the vital function of the kidneys is the removal of urea from the blood and the body Parts of each kidney nephron called the glomerulus is very narrow Blood enters the glomerulus at high pressure leading to the plasma being forced out through capillary walls, into the bowman's capsule This is known as ultracalion

Answer 202

Outer layer of the kidneys

Answer 203

Inner region, contains thousands of nephrons

Answer 204

Supplies kidneys with blood

Answer 205

Blood filled by the kidneys

Answer 206

Chambers through which urine passes

Answer 207

Tubes that carry urine from the kidney to the bladder

Answer 208

Stores urine

Answer 209

``` Fatigue Difficulty walking Numbness and tingling Muscle stiffness Balance and coordination Problems with bladder control Mobility problems Blurred vision ```

Answer 210

It is a condition that affects the brain and the spinal cord causing a wide range of potential symptoms and disabilities In MS, the coating that protects your nervous, myelin sheath is damaged this causes interference with nerve impulses and damage nervous cells More than 100,000 people in the uk have MS and commonly diagnosed between 20-40

Answer 211

Autoimmune diseases This is because the immune system attacks the myelin sheath in the brain and spinal cord This causes the myelin sheath to become inflamed in patches which disrupts messages traveling along the neuron When the inflammation clears, scarring is left behind on the myelin sheath. This scarring is known as sclera This leads to permanent damage to the underlying nervous

Answer 212

Blood brain barriers are breaking down in places allowing immune cells into the brain Immune cells start attacking the myelin sheath This myelin sheath becomes inflamed Inflammation causes scarring on the myelin sheath Scarring lead to permanent damage to underlying nervous This damage disrupts messages traveling along the nerve fibres

Answer 213

genetics - 2-3% chance of developing it low vitamin D levels - essential for immune system regulation Viral infection- created by an epstein-barr virus such as glandular fever Smoking- twice as likely because smoking reduces the absorption of vitamin D

Answer 214

Deterioration of motor neurons in brain so affect walking and a loss of coordination Deterioration of fibres in cerebellum may impact balance Disorder is progressive so mobility will decrease overtime Muscle become stiff and resistant to movement Can suffer from dizziness and vertigo Musculoskeletal pain indirectly caused poor posture Slowing of impulse transmission reflex speed

Answer 215

Eyesights may deteriorate- unable to drive Cognitive problems- may need to stop working Mobility issues- may need a wheelchair Unable to grip or carry- home help May become bed bound- home help May lose bladder or bowel control- embarrassed to go out

Answer 216

Individuals will need specialised support Including physiotherapist, speech and language therapist and a neurological specialist Individuals may require mobility aids such as wheelchair and walking sticks

Answer 217

There is no cure for ms so treatment focus of relaxing the symptoms Medication- can help speed up recovering from a relapse but don't do not prevent further realspe, anti-inflammatory steroids Physiotherapy- it will help with mobility issues, exercises designed to help with balance and walking as well as building muscle strength

Answer 218

Brain scans- MRI’S can show whether there is any damage of scarring to the brain of the myelin sheath Blood tests- can be used to rule out other conditions that may cause the symptoms Neurological examinations- asses changing or weakness in individuals which can help diagnose MS

Answer 219

A specialist blood supply keeps the medulla region of the kidney salt by removing salt from the unni in the loop of henle. The collecting ducts are also located in this salty medulla. In the presence of ADH water can pass through the walls of the collecting ducts so water in the urine diffuses out of ducts into the salty medulla and from there back into the blood. The result is a rectum to the correct blood concentration and the production of a concentrated urine.

Answer 220

If we drink lots of water and it is a cool day our blood can become too diluted, this risks our blood and cells taking up water by osmosis, swelling and possibly bursting, this means the hypothalamus is not stimulated, the pituitary does not produce ADH and water remains in the urine and is passed to the bladder making us urinate more

Answer 221

It is the maintenance of the constant internal environment. The conditions in the body must be carefully controlled if the body is to function effectively and is vital for life The nervous system responsible for this

Answer 222

The receptor- sense environmental stimuli, sending the information to the integrating centre

Answer 223

The integrating centre- generally region of brain called hypothalamus signals an effect to respond to stimuli

Answer 224

An effector- is any organ or tissue that receives information from the integrating centre and acts to bring about the changes need to maintain homeostasis

Answer 225

The concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood Body temperature maintained bat 37, enzymes work best at this temperature Blood sugar levels, controlled by the release and storage of glucose which in turn is controlled by insulin Water content to protect cells by preventing much water entering or leaving

Answer 226

A feedback loop in which the output of an system reduces the activity causing an output If the levels rises control systems reduces it again If level full control system raised it again

Answer 227

A loop in which the output of a system is increased by mechanisms own influence on the system that creates an output Positive feedback mechanisms are designed to push levels out the normal range To achieve this a series of events initiates a cascading process that builds to increase the effect of the stimulus This process can be beneficial but is rarely used because it may become uncontrollable

Answer 228

Within the pancreas and the cells that produce the pancreatic fluid are specialised group of cells These contain two types of hormones insulin and glucagon

Answer 229

It is a condition that causes the kidneys to leak large amounts of proteins into the urine leading to a range of problems including swelling of body tissue and greater chances of infection.

Answer 230

Swelling- the low level of proteins in the blood reduces the flow of water from the body back into the blood vessels, leading to swelling. Swelling is usually first noticed around the eyes, then around the lower legs and the rest of the body. Infections- a greater chance of infections due to the loss of protein antibodies. Urine changes- higher levels of urine may be passed. occasionally , the high levels of protein being passed into the urine can cause it to become frothy. Blood clots- important proteins that help prevent the blood clotting can be passed out in the urine. This can increase their risk of potential serious blood clots. During the relapse, the blood also becomes more concentrated, which can lead to clotting

Answer 231

The kidneys do not work properly causing large amounts of proteins to leak into the urine Loss of protein through the kidneys is due to an increase in permeability of the filtering membrane of the kidney due to the kidney disease. This leads to low protein levels in the blood, which causes water to be drawn into the soft tissue, resulting in xdemia.

Answer 232

Nephrotic syndrome happens when there is a problem with your kidneys filters. When your kidneys filters are not working in the right way, this can lead to the symptoms of nephrotic syndrome. Result of kidney damage caused by a condition such as diabetes/sickle cell anemia and infections such as HIV, hepatitis or syphilis A result of certain types of cancer Congenital nephrotic syndrome is usually caused by an inherited faulty gene