anatomy and physiology Flashcards
Explain the cardiovascular system?
Body system that moves blood around the body
Consists of heart and blood vessels
Blood vessels that take blood away from the heart are arteries
Blood vessels that take blood away from the heart are called veins
how many times does the heartbeat a day
Heart beats 100,000 times a day
Pumps about 5 litres of blood around the body a day through a network of blood vessels providing nutrients
what is the pericardium
thin outlining that protects your heart
what is the myocardium
thick muscular layer that contracts and squeezes blood out
what is the endocardium
thin inner lining of the heart (4 chambers)
what can smoking do to your heart
Damaged lining of your arteries leads to fatty build up.
Carbon monoxide in smoking reduces the amount of oxygen in the blood.
how can weight affect your heart
Puts extra strain on heart muscles, and raises blood cholesterol.
how does Cholesterol affect your heart
Too much cholesterol building up in the walls of the arteries causes a form of heart disease
how does blood pressure affect your heart
Damage your heart by affecting blood flow to the arteries
Increases the elasticity of the walls which increases blood flow which then increases heart rate
what does the Respiratory system do
It gets rid of carbon dioxide in the blood and takes in oxygen which the body needs via the lungs
Trachea branches which branches into two bronchi
Pleural membranes surround each lung attaching to the rib cage and diaphragm to stop friction.
Cartilage rings in the walls of the trachea helps to keep it open
Bronchi split into smaller tubes called bronchioles
Alveoli are at the end in microscopic air sacs.
There is a muscular diagram below the lungs which separate the chest from the abdomen
what 3 things play an important role in your ventilation
The ribs, intercostal muscles and the diagram play important roles in ventilation.
explain how the body takes in oxygen to the lungs?
Gas exchange
Body getting rid of carbon dioxide and taking in oxygen
The trachea branches into two bronchi
Pleural membrane surrounded each lung, they attach the lung to the ribcage and the diaphragm and prevent friction
Cartilage rings hep to keep the trachea open
Bronchi splits into smaller tubes called bronchioles
what is the Larynx?
connect the back of the nose and trachea forming an air passage for the lungs
what is the Alveoli?
they are sacs found in clusters at the end of the bronchioles, they are all surrounded by capillary network where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged
what is the Diaphragm?
this is a muscle anchored to the lower ribs that separate the chest from the abdomen
what is the Intercostal muscles?
muscles found between the ribs
what is the Pleural membranes?
cover the outside of the lung and line the inside of the chest wall
give some facts about a Erythrocytes cell
have a biconcave shape to increase the service area, slows blood flow the enable diffusion of oxygen. Large amounts of haemoglobin for transporting oxygen. No nucleus. Role is to transport oxygen around the body.
give some facts about a Lymphocytes cell
There are 2 types: t-cells and b-cells, which are both involved in the immune system. T-cells destroy the body’s own cells that have been infected. B-cells produce antibodies to destroy antigens and fight infection.
give some facts about a Neutrophils cell
multi-lobed nucleus, most common white blood cell, very mobile and move quickly to area of infection, they carry out phayoyosis
give some facts about a Monocytes cell
largest white blood cell, they have a di-lobed nucleus and formed in the bone marrow, they move to the area of attack and carry out phagocytosis
give some facts about a platlets
fragments of larger cells, disc shaped and involved in blood clotting to slow and stop bleeding
give some facts about a plasma
clear yellowish colour, carries a means of production for transport for proteins, glucose, lipids, amino acids, hormones, dissolved food molecules, carbon dioxide, oxygen. Helps temperature regulation in the body
What is the function of blood?
to transport nutrients around the body
Substances that cannot dissolved in water are carried by blood, proteins called lipoproteins
Blood also transports gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide between the tissue and the lungs
Explain how fats are transported in the blood?
Fats are transported to tissues where they are used for energy or stored
Fats are transported packaged with proteins called lipoproteins
Explain how hormones are transported in the blood?
Blood also transport hormones e.g: adrenaline and insulin
Chemicals produced in endocrine gland
Travel into the blood to target organs which trigger a response
Explain how gases are transported in the blood?
Blood transports oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and the tissues
Oxygen is required by the tissues for respiration and carbon dioxide is a waste product of respiration that need to be removed
In the tissues oxygen is released, haemoglobin is reformed
Erythrocytes contain an iron-rich protein called haemoglobin which combines with oxygen to produce haemoglobin
give 2 types of lipoprotiens
LDL’s and HDL’s
what is a LDl?
HDL prevent the deposit left by LDL’s
what is a HDL?
LDLs deposit fats and cholesterol in the walls of arteries
what are chemical reactions controlled by ?
proteins called enzymes
what happens if temperature gets to high?
If the temperature gets too high then enzymes will change shape (denature)
what happens if temperature gets to low?
If the temperature is too low then the enzymes (slow down) and will not work well enough for a reaction to occur
what is optimum for the body?
Optimum temperature for a good body is 37’c
where is heat produced?
Heat is produced in the cells but mostly in the muscles
what does blood do for temperature regulation?
Blood removes the heat and circulates this heat around the body
whose role is it i combating infection?
Combating infection is the role of the immune system
what happens in the body when fighting infection?
Bacteria and parasites will be recognised as threats by cells such as neutrophils and b-lymphocytes , which act as antigens, they form special proteins called antibodies. These lock onto specific chemicals in the walls of the bacteria and parasites, immobilizing them and making them target monocytes that then kill and breakdown.
Special lycophytes remember these particular pathogens and will respond quickly if there is a re-infection
explain blood clotting?
When skin is exposed to air foreign material, tiny cell fragments from the bone marrow called platelets, activate a chain reaction called coagulation
They converts the soluble blood protein fibrinogen into insoluble from fibrin creating a net-like structure trapping both platelets and erythrocytes to form a clot
The platelets also activate the immune response minimising the threat of a pathogenic invasion
what does inspiration mean?
breathing in
what does expiration mean?
breathing out
what is the role of the pleural membrane?
Each lung is enclosed with a double membrane
Space between two membranes called pleural cavity and is filled with small amount of pleural fluid
Fluid lubricates the surface so two pleural layers will slide over each other allowing the lungs to move
Also protects the lungs from friction as the move
explain the process of inspiration?
Medulla oblongata sends signals to the external intercostal muscles and diaphragm contracts
The ribcage is forced up and out
As the diaphragm contracts it flattens, pressing down on digestive organs
Pleural membrane attach lungs to ribcage and diaphragm
As lung are stretched opens microscopic alveoli for gaseous exchange
Stretching lungs increases the volume decreasing air pressure within the lungs below atmosphere outside the lungs
Results in air rushing into lung to balance air pressure
explain the process of expiration ?
The reserse happens
The medulla oblongata stops sending signals so diaphragm stop contracting
Diaphragm lifts back into dome shape and intercostal muscles pull ribcage in and down
Decreases volume in the lung so air pressure in lungs is greater
Forced carbon dioxide out of lungs so deflate
what’s the role of the pleural membrane?
Process involves exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between capillaries and alveoli
what is capillary?
smallest blood vessels and carry blood between arteries and veins
what is alveoli?
Alveoli- tiny air sacs at the end of the bronchioles
give 3 adaptations of the alveoli and explain them?
Walls are thin- minimum distance for gases to pass
Moist walls- gases dissolve in the moisture helping them to pass across exchange surfaces
Large number of air sacs- capillaries making larger surface area
explain the diffusion gradient?
Substance will move down a concentration gradient from areas of high to low concentration until the same concentration.
During inspiration air is sucked into the lungs filling the alveoli which means a higher concentration of oxygen in the alveoli than the capillaries.
Capillaries surrounding the alveoli have a lower concentration of oxygen.
Results in a diffusion in oxygen.
what is a Erythrocytes ?
Red blood cell
Biconcave shape or large surface area
No nucleus to fit more haemoglobin
Red protein
what is hemoglobin?
Red protein
Carry oxygen around the body
Makes oxyhaemoglobin
what is plasma?
Component of blood
Liquid
Carries blood cells
explain the process of inspiration?
Air suced intoo the lungs
Inflates the alveoli
High concentration of oxygen in the alveoli
Low concentration of oxygen in blood capillaries
Oxygen diffuses from alveoli into the blood through capillaries
explain the diffusion gradient in the alveoli ?
Oxygen diffuses into blood and combines with haemoglobin in erythrocytes to form oxyhaemoglobin
Carbon dioxide in blood diffuses in the opposite direction
Plasma transports CO2 which is then passed off to the lungs during expiration
why do we need oxygen?
Oxygen diffuses into blood and combines with haemoglobin in erythrocytes to form oxyhaemoglobin
Carbon dioxide in blood diffuses in the opposite direction
Plasma transports CO2 which is then passed off to the lungs during expiration
why do we need a reduce amout of co2?
Too much acidic carbon dioxide in our blood is harmful and can stop our body cells from working properly.
explain the pulmonary circulation?
Pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the capillaries in the lungs
Gaseous exchange happens and the blood becomes oxygenated
The pulmonary vein then carries the oxygenated blood back to the heart to be pumped around the body
give a basic summary of gas exchange?
Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between capillaries and alveoli.
Process is aided by three adaptations that include; thin, moist, scas.
Diffusion gradient high to low
Blood then circulates the oxygen to the body while carbon dioxide is exhaled during expiration
what is the aorta?
main artery in the body: it leaves from the heart to the left ventricle
what is the pulmonary artery?
carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
what is the vena cava?
largest veins in the body, carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs (superior and inferior)
what is the pulmonary vein?
carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium
what is the tricuspid valve?
frist valve that blood encounters as it enters the heart from the tissues, allows blood to move only from the right atrium to the left ventricle preventing it from going back
what is bcuspid valve?
found on the left hand side of the heart. Found between the left atrium and left ventricle.
what is the pulomanry arterial valve?
at the opening from right ventricle into the pulmonary artery, prevents blood moving backwards into right ventricle
what is the aortic valve?
found at the exit of the left ventricle where the aorta begins
what provides energy we need?
glucose
what is a cell?
Cells are the building blocks
Provide structure from the body, taking nutrients into energy and carry out function
explain aerobic respiration?
Take place in the mitochondria
Mitochondria use enzymes to convert glucose into ATP
ATP is a high energy molecule found in the cell
Mitochondria have a inner membrane on which enzymes are embedded
This membrane is highly folded to increase the surface are on which respiration takes place
what is ATP?
Atp provides immediate source of energy for biological process
ATP is formed when ADP combines with energy released when we break down glucose
ATP can then be quickly broken down back to ADP breakdown releases the main energy source of the cell
explain anaerobic respiration?
Takes place without oxygen and releases less energy because glucose molecules are only partially broken down
During exercise, cells are deprived of oxygen but still need energy. The body response by converting glucose into lactic acid and energy into ‘oxygen debt’
Lactic acid causes muscle cramps, when exercises stop oxygen debt and oxidising the lactic acid
explain the process of glycolysis ?
Process that occurs in the cytoplasm during aerobic and anaerobic
Process breaks down glucose and forms pyruvate with 2ATP
Pyruvate is a molecules involved in energy generation can be converted into lactic acid or broken to water and carbon dioxide when oxygen is present
explain the kreb cycle?
Pyruvic acid supplies energy to cells through the krebs cycle when oxygen is present through aerobic respiration
When oxygen is lacking needs to be oxidised later to form carbon dioxide and water to prevent build up
what can asthma be triggered by?
Allergens Dust Exercise Stress Infection
give a biological explanation for asthma?
Cause bronchi to become inflamed and more sensitive
Causes the airways to narrow as the muscles in the bronchi tighten
Tightening causes lining to be swollen produce airways being blocked
give the effects on the individual for having asthma?
Results in wheezes, short of breath has a tight and will coughing alot
If symptoms continue they will have an asthma attack
A severe asthma attack will reduce amount of air reaching the lungs lip and fingertips may go blue showing lack of oxygen
explain arties ?
Large vessels that carry blood away from the heart, they have thick walls
They outside wall of arteries are thicker than veins of the vein because they have to be able to withstand greater pressure
Larger amounts of elastin in them means they can stretch as the blood is forced out
explain arterioles?
Vessels that connect arteries to capillaries, they are smaller versions of arteries with muscular walls
Smaller in diameter than arteries, controlling the flow of blood into capillaries
explain capillaries?
Vessels that are one cell thick, which enables nutrients and gases to pass through them
Thinnest vessels
Site where oxygen, carbon dioxide and nutrient pass from the blood to the tissues
Pressure in the capillaries is much lower so that diffusion can occur
explain veins ?
Vessels with a large lumen with valves inside to prevent the backflow of blood
Returning the blood back to the heart
Much thinner walls than the arteries and the lumen is larger in veins than arteries
The veins contain pocket valves to prevent backflow to blood
explain venuals ?
Venules connect capillaries to veins; they are smaller various of veins without valves
Pressure is much less than in arteries
what is a spironmetry?
blow into a machine that measures how fast you can breath out and how much you can hold in your lungs, measures maximum forced expiration, indicates functional ability of lungs
what is a peakfow?
monitors how fast you can breathe out compared to ‘normal range’, indicates degree of dilation in airways, readings need to be taken twice a day to see if medication is working.
what is osmosis?
Net movement of molecules down a concentration gradient
Allows small molecules to cross plasma membrane
Sugars and proteins can freely pass
what is tissue fluid?
Tissue fluid is yellowish liquid made from blood plasma
It bathes all cells and acts as transport medium between blood and cells
It supplies nutrients to tissues and returns carbon dioxide and other material from surrounding tissue
what is hydrostatic pressure?
As the capillaries are narrower than the arterioles, a pressure builds up which forces water out of the blood plasma=hydrostatic pressure
The pressure is resisted by:
The lower water potential of the blood, caused by plasma proteins that are too large to leave the capillaries. This is called osmotic pressure.
Overall, pressure pushes water and small molecules out of the capillary leaving cells and large proteins behind.
Return of tissue to the circulatory system.
Most water is returned to the blood plasma via the capillaries.
The loss of water from the capillaries at the arteriole and reduces the hydrostatic pressure inside them.
Osmotic forces resulting from the blood pressure in the plasma pull water back into capillaries via osmosis as the water potential in the capillary at the venule end is lower.
Remaining tissue enters the lymph vessels-drain back into the veins close to the heart
what are changeable and unchangeable factors of hypertension?
Age Family history High salt intake Lack of exercise Being overweight Smoking,drinking and drugs
what is blood pressure?
When the heart pumps blood into your arteries it creates a pressure called blood pressure(bp)
This pressure is at its highest when the heart is contracting lower when relaxing.
The two pressures, called the systolic and diastolic pressures respectively, can be measured using a sphygmomanometer.
The readings are normally taken in the aim using the brachial artery.
Normal blood pressure is difficult for diffrent age groups
explain how to take a blood pressure reading?
Blood pressure is recorded as two numbers
The systolic pressure( the higher number) is the force at which your heart pumps blood around the body.
The diastolic pressure ( the lower number ) is the resistance to blood flow in the blood vessels and the pressure when your heart rests between beats
They are both measured in millimeters of mercury.
what is hypertension?
Hypertension is a long term medical condition which causes blood pressure in the arteries which is persistently elevated
what problems can hypertension cause?
Heart attacks
Strokes
aneurysms
Metabolic syndrome
Weakened and narrowed blood vessels in kidneys- prevents from making them work properly.
Dementia- limit blood flow to the brain narrow or torn blood vessels in the eyes.
what are Monitoring treatment and care needs of patients with hypertension
Blood pressure needs to be taken and recorded
Change in diet
Regular exercise
Medications eg ace inhibitors and beta blockers to slow the heart down.
what are respiratory diseases ?
Respiratory diseases are one of the biggest causes of death worldwide.
Respiratory disease affects the lungs, bronchi, trachea and throat.
They can be mild such as a cold or life-threatening eg pneumonia or lung cancer.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder(COPD) is a term for a group of diseases that cause a reduction in the airflow in the lungs and which are not fully reversed
Two of the more serious types of COPD are chronic bronchitis and lymphedema and are both caused by smoking.
what is emphysema ?
Emphysema is a gradual breakdown of alveolar walls and damage to terminal bronchioles and alveolar capillaries. This can lead to additional infection.
This reduces the efficiency of gas exchange , causing constant breathlessness and hyperventilation.
what are symptoms of emphysema?
Shortlessness of breath
Yellow spit
Persistent cough that never goes
Frequent chest infections
what are the causes of emphysema?
Main cause is smoking cigarettes. If a person were to smoke for a larger period of time, they are more likely to develop the disease.
Genetics also are likely to play a part.
A person can also get it from second hand smoking.
what are the impact of emphysema of the individual?
Sleepness can lead to anxiety and depression Isolated Can't take part in activities Might not want to go out Fatigue May have to change lifestyle Might lead to lose of relationships Feelings of remorse
how do they diagnose emphysema?
There is no single test for emphysema. Diagnosis depends on taking into account a patient’s risk factor(eg weather they smoke, their age) their symptoms and clinical tests
Testing the patient’s lung function using spirometry is essential. It can determine whether there are airway obstructions and can help exclude the possibilities of other respiratory diseases such as asthma or lung cancer.
MRI and CT scans: these are scans that produce high resolution detailed images of the chest and can be repeated over time to monitor changes in condition.
High resolution CT scans is the most sensitive method of detecting emphysema.
explain MRI and CT scans ?
Allows doctors to see where in the lungs the disease is located
Can allow for better management of symptoms.
explain spirometry?
Diagnosis and monitoring can be carried out by spirometry.
You blow into a machine that measures how fast you can breathe out and how much air you can hold in your lungs.
It can measure maximum forced expiration(expiratory volume)-indicates the functional ability of the lungs
what are the treatment for emphysema?
Stopping smoking physiotherapy /pulmonary rehabilitation Oxygen therapy Medication surgery
Explain stopping smoking
Stopping smoking is the single most important step in showing the decline in lung function in people with COPD.
Medicines commonly prescribed to treat COPD include bronchodilators, which widen the airways by relaxing smooth muscles, and corticosteroids, which act as anti- inflammatories oxygen therapy especially for people with emphysema, may be required for most of each.
The treatment is to stabilize the condition and treat any complications not to cure the disease.
