Anatomy and Physiology (1st) Flashcards
All information that was taught to me while attending Vanier College's "Animal Health Technology" Program, located in St-Laurent Montreal.
1
Q
What is the median plane?
A
Divides the body into equal left and right halves
2
Q
What is the Sagittal plane?
A
Divides the body into left and right parts that are not necessarily equal
3
Q
What is a transverse plane?
A
Divides the body into cranial and caudal parts
4
Q
What is the dorsal plane?
A
Divides the body into dorsal and ventral parts
5
Q
What does cranial mean?
A
Toward the head ; or the front surface of a limb proximal to the carpus or tarsus
6
Q
What does caudal mean
A
Toward the tail; also the back surface of a limb proximal to the carpus or tarsus
7
Q
What does rostral mean?
A
Toward the tip of the nose
8
Q
What does dorsal mean?
A
Toward the top surface of the body ; also the top/front surface of a limb distal to the carpus or tarsus
9
Q
What does ventral mean?
A
Toward the bottom (belly) surface of the body
10
Q
What does medial mean?
A
Toward the median plane
11
Q
What does lateral mean?
A
Away from the median plane
12
Q
What does deep mean?
A
Toward the center of the body or a body part
13
Q
What does proximal mean?
A
Toward the body (used for appendages)
14
Q
What does distal mean?
A
Away from the body (used for appendages)
15
Q
What does palmar mean?
A
Ground/back surface of front limb distal to carpus
16
Q
What does plantar mean?
A
Ground/back surface of hind limb distal to the tarsus
17
Q
What is a cranial surface?
A
The front part of a leg (what enters the building first) above the knee
18
Q
What is a caudal surface?
A
The “back” surface of a leg above the knee
19
Q
What is a dorsal surface?
A
The front of leg (below knee) and top of foot
20
Q
What is a palmar surface ?
A
(Front legs only) The “back” part of leg (below the knee) including the bottom of the foot
21
Q
What is a plantar surface?
A
(Back legs only) The “back” part of leg (below the knee) including the bottom of the foot
22
Q
What is a barrel?
A
The trunk of the body-formed by the rib cage and the abdomen
23
Q
What is a flank?
A
Lateral surface of the abdomen between the last rib and the hind legs
24
Q
What is a brisket?
A
Area of the base of the neck between the front legs that covers the cranial end of the sternum
25
What is a poll?
Top of the head between the bases of the ears
26
What is a muzzle
Rostral part of the face formed mainly by the maxillary and nasal bones
27
What is a withers?
Area dorsal to scapulas
28
What is a tailhead?
Dorsal part of the base of the tail
29
What is a hock?
Tarsus
30
What is a stifle?
Femorotibial/fenoropatellar joint-equivalent to the human knee
31
What is a fetlock?
Joint between cannon bone (large metacarpal/metatarsal) and the proximal phalanx of hoofed animals
32
What is a knee?
Carpus of hoofed animals
33
What is a cannon?
Large metacarpal or metatarsal bone of hoofed animals
34
What is a Pastern?
Area of the proximal phalanx of hoofed animals
35
What is dorsal recumbency?
Lying on the back (dorsal body surface) with the ventral side facing up
36
What is lateral recumbency?
Lying on the side
37
What is left lateral recumbency?
Left side down
38
What is right lateral recumbency?
Right side down
39
What is sternal recumbency?
Lying in the sternum (ventral body surface) with the dorsal surface facing up
40
What is oblique recumbency ?
The body is tilted between dorsal or sternal recumbency and lateral recumbency (referred to by a combination of other position terms)
41
What are the four types of tissues?
epithelial tissue connective tissue muscle tissue nervous tissue
42
What is the function of epithelial tissue?
It covers and lines
43
What is the function of connective tissue?
It provides support
44
What is the function of muscle tissue?
It enables movement
45
What is the function of nervous tissue?
Controls work
46
What is gross anatomy?
The study of anatomical structures that can be seen with the naked eye includes learning the names and locations of bones, muscles, arteries, veins, and nerves
47
What is histology?
The study of tissues
48
What is microanatomy?
The study of anatomical structures that can be seen with the use of microscope
49
What is unique about a unicellular organism?
It can feed itself, respire, grow and produce or find all of the biochemical substances that it needs without the assistance of other cells
50
What are tissues?
Cells of similar type and function that are clustered into layers, sheets, or groups
51
What is a general function of epithelial tissue
It is protective of underlying tissues and frequently acts as a filter of biochemical substances as well as being absorptive. It also secretes biochemical substances
52
What are glandular epithelia?
Epithelia that engage in the manufacturing and release of substances
53
Where are goblet cells found and what are they an example of
Glandular epithelial cells
54
What are the two ways glandular epithelial cells can occur
As individuals or as organized glands
55
Give an example of some substances that are produced by glandular epithelia
Hormones, enzymes, milk, sweat
56
What are excretions
Substances that ultimately leave the body ie. sweat, urine, feces
57
What are secretions
Substances that remain within the body
58
What are the six functions of epithelia
Protects, covers, linesFilters biochemical substancesAbsorbs nutrientsProvides sensory inputManufactures secretionsManufactures excretions
59
What are the four general characteristics of epithelia
1. epithelial cells are polar 2. epithelial cells have lateral surfaces that are connected to neighboring cells by junctional complexes.3. all epithelial cells lack blood vessels or capillaries. 4. most epithelial cells are innervated and provide valuable sensory input
60
What does polar mean
They have a sense of direction relative to surrounding structures
61
What is an apical surface
The apical surface is the side of the cell that faces the lumen or body cavity
62
What is a basal surface
This side of the cell that faces the underlying connective tissue
63
What does avascular mean
Lacking blood vessels or capillaries
64
What does innervated mean
Containing nerves
65
What are the three major types of cellular junctions found between epithelial cells
Tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions
66
What is a tight junction
It is formed by the fusion of the outermost layers of the plasma membranes of adjoining cells
67
Where are tight junctions found
Tight junctions are found in tissues in which there can be no leaks. for example: urinary bladder, digestive tract
68
What is a desmosome
A strong welded plaque or thickening which connects the plasma membranes of adjacent cells
69
What is plaque
A thickening
70
What is a hemidesmosome
Junctions that look like half of a desmosome
71
What are tonofilaments
Thin filaments that provide the structural support for certain membrane junctions. tonal filaments are especially important in tissue that needs to flex
72
Where are desmosomes commonly found
They are found most commonly in tissues that undergo repeated episodes of tension and stretching such as the skin, heart, uterus.
73
What are Connexons
Tubular channel proteins
74
What is a transmembrane protein
transmembrane proteins allows the exchange and passage of ions and nutrients such as nucleotides, sugars, amino acids from one cell to the other.
75
Where are gap junctions most commonly found
Gap junctions are most commonly found in intestinal epithelial cells, the heart, smooth muscle tissue
76
What is the function of gap junctions and what are they commonly known for
The function of gap junctions is to quickly transport electrical signals from one cell to another. They're commonly known for the contraction of cardiac and smooth muscle
77
What is a basement membrane
It is a non-living meshwork of fibers that cement the epithelial cells to the underlying connective tissue
78
What does the basement membrane protect the cell from
Being torn off by intraluminal pressures such as stretching or erosion
79
How are oxygen and nutrient molecules supplied to the epithelial cells
They are supplied to epithelial cells by diffusing through the basement membrane from Capillaries in the underlying connective tissue
80
What does the basement membrane act as
It acts as a partial barrier between epithelial cells and underlying connective tissue
81
What are microvilli
Fingerlike protrusions of the luminal surface of some epithelial membranes that increase the cells exposed surface area
82
What is a brush border
The surface of a cell covered with microvilli
83
When the surface area increases...
The absorptive ability increases
84
What cells do microvilli usually occur on
Cells involved in absorption or secretion such as ones in the intestinal and urinary tracts
85
What is Keratin
A tough waterproof proteins that makes scales, claws, feathers, nails, hair, horns, huffs
86
What are the three characteristics that are used to classify epithelial tissue
1. Number of layers of cells2. Shape of cells3. Presence of surface specializations
87
What are simple epithelia
Single layer of epithelial cells that provides little protection to underlying connective tissue
88
What are stratified epithelia
Containing many layers of cells thicker, stronger and found in areas of the body that are subjected to mechanical and chemical stress
89
What is cuboidal epithelium
Epithelium composed of cube shaped cells having centrally located nuclei
90
What is columnar epithelium
Epithelium composed of tall, thin, epithelial cells having nuclei located at their basal end and are often ciliated
91
What are squamous epithelium
Epithelium composed of flat, hexagonal cells
92
What is mesothelium
The epithelium that lines the pleural pericardial and peritoneal cavities
93
What two cells make up the gut lining
Absorptive cell, goblet cell
94
What is the function of a goblet cell
Manufacture and store lubricating mucus that is secreted onto the luminal surfaces of the epithelia
95
What are immunoglobulins
Disease fighting molecules that help to protect animals from pathogens that have been inhaled
96
What is a pathogen
Bacteria and viruses
97
What is transitional epithelium
Epithelium that can expand and contract thus enabling it to hold a good deal of volume
98
Where is transitional epithelium located
Portions of the urinary tract: urinary bladder, ureters, urethra and kidney
99
What is a gland
A cell or a group of cells that have the ability to manufacture and discharge secretion
100
What are secretions
Specialize protein molecules that are produced in the rough endoplasmic recticulum, packaged into granules by the Golgi apparatus, discharged from the cell
101
What are the six classifying characteristics of glands
1. Presence or absence of ducts (endocrine or exocrine)2. Number of cells that compose them (unicellular and multicellular)3. Shape of the secreting ducts (simple or compound)4. Complexity of the glandular structure (tubular, acinar, tubuloacinar)5. Type of secretion produced (mucoid or serous)6. Manner in which the secretion is stored and discharged ( merocrine, apocrine, holocrine)
102
What are endocrine glands
Glands that do not have ducts or tubules and who secretions are distributed throughout the body
103
What are hormones
Regulatory chemicals
104
What are exocrine glands
Glands that possessed ducts
105
What is the function of the endocrine glands
Discharge secretions via their ducts directly into nearby areas where they may for example cover cell surfaces or empty into body cavities
106
Unlike endocrine glands, exocrine glands...
Act locally and do not normally enter the circulation
107
What is an example of a unicellular exocrine gland
The ductless goblet gland
108
What do goblet cells secrete
Mucin: thick, stringy mixture of glycoproteins and proteoglycans that when mixed with water becomes mucus
109
What are the two distinct components of a multicellular exocrine gland
Secretory unit in which secretions are produced by secretory cells and a duct that carries the secretion to the deposition site
110
What is a simple gland
An exocrine gland with unbranched ducts
111
What is a compound gland
An exocrine gland with branched ducts
112
What is a tubular Gland
Secretory unit of exocrine glands either containing or composed of tubules
113
What is an alveolar gland
A gland where the secretory unit forms a rounded sack
114
What are glands with secretary units that possess both tubular and alveolar qualities called
Tubuloacinar
115
What are merocrine glands
Glands who's secretions contain none of their own cells thus leaving the Glands cells intact. example: saliva and sweat glands
116
What is an apocrine gland
Gland who secretions contain some of it's cellular material.
117
What is a holocrine gland
A gland who's granular secretions contain not only that secretory product but also the cells themselves
118
What is serous secretions
Watery, contain a high concentration of enzymes
119
What are mucous secretions
Thick, viscous, composed of glycoproteins
120
What are mixed endocrine glands
Glands that contain both mucous And serous components
121
What is mesoderm
The middle layer of fetal body tissue
122
What is adipose connective tissue
Vascular type of connective tissue who's general functions are to protect, insulate and provide a major source of energy to the body
123
What are extracellular fibers
The fibers of connective tissue located outside of the cells that perform a variety of functions depending on their degree of elasticity
124
What is the extracellular matrix
The mixture of fiber and ground substance
125
What are glycosaminoglycan's
Unbranched chains of glycoproteins
126
What are the three type of fibers connective tissue contains
Collagenous, recticular, Elastic
127
What are collagenous fibers
Strong, thick strands composed of the structural protein collagen
128
What are reticular fibers
Thin fibers composed of collagen
129
What are elastic fibers composed of
The protein Elastin
130
What is a fibroblast
Large, irregularly shaped cells that manufacture and secrete both fibers and ground substance characteristic of their particular matrix
131
What fixed cell does cartilage contain
ChondroblSt
132
What are reticular cells
Cells that are flat, star shaped with long, outreaching arms that touch other cells forming net like connections with the tissue they compose
133
What are leukocytes
White blood cells that move into connective tissue in large numbers during times of infection
134
What is diapedesis
The process by which white blood cells squeeze through walls of tiny blood vessels into the surrounding tissue
135
What are mast cells
Oval cells that are easily identified by the large number of dark staining granules Stored in the cytoplasm
136
What does histamine do
Histamine increases blood flow to the area by making capillaries leaky
137
What does heparin do
Prevents blood from clotting and ensures the pathways for increased bloodflow remain open
138
What are microphages
Masses irregularly shaped phagocytizing scavengers that may be either fixed or transient in connective tissue. They engulf microbes, dead cells and debris and subsequently digest them in the lysosomes
139
What are the two subclasses of connective tissue
Loose connective tissue and dense connective tissue
140
What does loose connective tissue contain
Areolar, adipose and reticular tissue
141
What does dense connective tissue contain
Dense regular, dense irregular, elastic tissue
142
What is Areolar connective tissue
Randomly placed fibers and cells suspended in a thick, translucent ground substance
143
What is adipose tissue
Fat
144
What are the two main types of adipose tissue
White adipose tissue and brown adipose tissue
145
Where is white adipose tissue found
Throughout the body in deep layers of skin
146
Where is brown adipose tissue found
It is found in newborn animals and animals that hibernate during the winter
147
What is reticular connective tissue composed of
Complex, three dimensional network of thin, reticular fibers
148
What is the stroma
A network which constitutes the framework of several organs
149
What is dense fibrous connective tissue characterized by
Densely packed arrangement of collagen fibers
150
What is dense regular connective tissue composed of
Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers. The fibers lie in the direction of the force that is exerted on them, thereby giving the overall tissue tremendous strength but only in one direction
151
What is a Fascia
A structure that can withstand forces from more than one direction
152
What is elastic connective tissue
Dense connective tissue that is primarily composed of elastic fibers rather than collagen fibers
153
Where are simple tubular glands found
Stomach, intestines
154
Where are coiled tubular glands found
Sweat glands
155
Where are branched tubular glands found
Stomach, mouth, tongue
156
Where are simple aveolar glands found
Sebaceous glands
157
Where are branched aveolar glands found
Sebaceous glands
158
Where are compound tubular glands found
Bulbourethral glands, mammary glands, mucous glands
159
Where are compound aveolar glands found
Mammary glands
160
Where are compound tubuloalveolar glands found
Salivary gland, pancreas, respiratory passages
161
What is cartilage
Tough, specialized connective tissue that is commonly known as gristle
162
What is chondrocyte and where do they live
Cartilage cells, lives in hollowed out pockets in the matrix called lacunae
163
What is hyaline cartilage
Composed of closely packed collagen fibers that make it tough but more flexible than bone
164
What is articular cartilage
Cartilage at the ends of long bones and joints and connection ribs to the sternum
165
What is elastic cartilage
Similar to hyaline cartilage but contains more elastic fibers which form dense, branching bundles that appear black microscopically
166
What is fibrocartilage
Contains text bundles of collagen fibers like hyaline cartilage but has fewer chondrocytes and lacks a perichondrium
167
What is bone
Hardest and most rigid type of connective tissue
168
What does a Haversian canal contain
Both a vascular and a nerve supply
169
What do osteoblast do
Manufacture the fibers that are part of the matrix
170
What is blood
Red fluid that passes through vessels and that carries nutrient molecules and gases throughout the body
171
What are Erythrocytes
Red blood cells
172
What are leukocytes
White blood cells
173
What are thrombocytes
Platelets
174
What are three examples of loose connective tissue
Areolar, adipose, recticular
175
What are three examples of dense connective tissue
Dense regular, dense irregular, elastic
176
What are three examples of cartilage
Hyalin cartilage, elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage
177
What are two examples of bones
Compact, cancellous
178
What are the two broad categories of connective tissue
Loose connective tissue, dense connective tissue
179
What are serous membranes
Lined the walls and cover the organs that fill closed body cavities
180
What is the portion of the membrane that lines the cavity wall called
Parietal layer
181
What is the portion of the membrane that covers the outer surface of organs called
Visceral layer
182
What is a transudate
Thin fluid containing small amounts of protein or no protein that has been passed through membrane
183
What is a hemothorax
When blood cells and fluid leak from ruptured capillaries into the pleural space
184
What is a exudate
When cells, protein and other solid material mixed with serous fluid
185
What is effusion
When an abnormally large amount of fluid enters the body cavity
186
What is ascites
Fluid accumulation in the peritoneal cavity
187
What is pleuritis
Inflammation of the Pleura
188
What is pericarditis
Inflammation of the pericardial tissue
189
What is peritonitis
Inflammation of the peritoneum
190
What are. Adhesions
Abnormal connections between Parietal and visceral layers
191
What is a membrane
Epithelium plus connective tissues
192
What does it mean if a tissue is regular
It means that it is parallel
193
What do tendons do
Connect muscle to bones
194
What do ligaments do
Connect bone to bone
195
What do fascia do
Surrounds muscles
196
What does reticular mean
A network
197
What are two cell types in connective tissues
Fixed cells and wandering cells
198
What do fixed cells do and given example of it
Fixed cells remain in connective tissue and an example is fibroblast
199
What do osteoclasts do
Breaks down bone
200
What are wandering cells and give an example
Leave connective tissue as needed and microphages
201
What are the three components of connective tissue
1. cells 2. ground substance3. fibers
202
What do endocrine glands to
Makes hormones
203
What do exocrine glands do
Make other things
204
What are the three layers of skin
EpidermisDermisHypodermis
205
What are the characteristics specific to the epidermis
Primary cellularKeratinized stratified epitheliumVascularSeparated from dermis by basement membrane
206
What are skins specific characteristics
Largest organCovers external surface of bodyComposed of all 4 tissue types
207
What are the characteristics specific to the dermis
Has projections: dermal papillaeVascularized Contains muscle and nervous tissue
208
What are the characteristics specific to the hypodermis
Composed mostly of adipose tissueVascularized
209
What is skin composed of
Stratified squamous epithelium
210
What is specific about stratified squamous epithelium
Contains keratinocytesDominant cell type in epidermisProduces keratinAlong basement membraneBasal layer divides by mitosis
211
How do cells become Keratinized
Lose nucleus, organelles, flatten and die
212
What are melanocytes
Produce keratin = dark pigment Have octopus like projectionsMelanin is released and absorbed by keratinocytes
213
What is a langerhans cells
Macrophage specific to epidermisWander through epidermisPhagocytizes pathogensStimulates immune systemFormed in bone marrow and migrate to skin via blood
214
What is a merkel cell
Epithelial cells found at base of epidermis Associated with sensory nerve endings
215
What type of cells cause skin cancer
Squamous cell carcinomaMalignant melanomaBasal cell sarcoma
216
What is specific about squamous cell carcinoma
Found in areas most exposed to u.v.Aggressive locally - forms lesionsSpreads rapidly to lymph nodes:deadly
217
What is specific about malignant melanoma in horses
Very common in GretaStart as nodules on ears,perianal areaLater ulcerate and spread to rest of body
218
What is specific about malignant melanoma in dogs
Oral cavity is the most common location and it is the most malignant
219
What is specific about basal cell tumours
Affect basal layerNodular masses beneath skinUsually benign and don't spreadMore common in cats than dogsFound in head + neck region
220
What is the first layer of epidermis and what is specific about it
Stratum basale:Single row of keratinocytes on top of basement membraneActively dividingNewly forming cells are pushed upwards
221
What is the second layer of epidermis and what is specific about it
Stratum spinosum:Several rows of keratinocytesCell layers held together by desmosomesProjections of melanocytes reach into this layer
222
What is the third layer of epidermis and what is specific about it
Stratum granulosum:2-4 rows of cells; flattened-diamond shaped keratinocytes
223
What is the fourth layer of epidermis and specific characteristics of it
Stratum lucidum:Found only in thick skinFew layers of Keratinized dead cells
224
What is the fifth layer of epidermis and what is specific about it
Stratum corneum:Outermost layerMajority of epidermis thickness 20-30 rows of dead, flattened keratinocytes
225
What is specific about the dermis?
Provides structural strength to skinHide of animal used to make leather Contain large amount of fibers: collagen, elastic, reticularCells: fibroblasts
226
What are the two layers of the dermis:
Papillary layerReticular layer
227
Describe the papillary layer
Thin, superficial layerBelow basement membraneComposed to Areolar connective tissue ** ground substance? Hyaluronic acid
228
WhAt is special about the papillary layer
Often has papillae rising up into epidermis and has sensory neurons
229
Describe the reticular layer
Thick, deep layerComposed 80% of dermisComposed of dense irregular connective tissue
230
Describe the hypodermis
Thick layer below dermisComposed of Areolar and adipose tissueContains mostly elastic fibersHas pacinan corpuscles
231
Why is the hypodermis special?
Location of subcutaneous injections
232
What is particular about pigmentation
Presence of melanin in keratinocytesFormed and released in melanosomes Controlled by hormones of pituitary gland****ultimately controlled by genetics
233
What are melanosomes
Sac where melanin is stores
234
What are paw pads and what is distinct about them?
Toughest and thickest skin on bodyProtect against abrasion etcShock absorbers5 layers of epidermis +collagen and elastinStratum corneum has papillae which provide tractionContains sweat glands
235
What is a planum nasale
Thin hairless region on nose3 epidermis layersNo glands in cats and dogs
236
What are chestnuts
Found in equinesSoft horn like structuresVestigial structures Located on medial surface of carpus/tarsus
237
Where are ergots found
Located on palmar/plantar surface of fetlock
238
What is hair?
Mammalian characteristicKeratinized structure made by hair folliclesComposed of dead cells: with or without pigment
239
What is the function of hair
Thermoregulation, camouflage, sensory
240
Where is hair usually thickest
Dorsal and lateral surfaces of body
241
What is a common problem associated with hairless animals
Difficulty with thermoregulation and skin cancer
242
Describe the structure of hair
Shaft: part of hair where keratinization is completeRoot: keratinization occurring in epidermal cells
243
Describe a hair follicle
Tube like structure through dermisHair bulb: invaginated by dermal cells called hair papilla - contains capillaries Matrix: rapidly dividing epithelial cells covering hair papilla
244
What are the three layers of coat
* primary hairs*secondary Hairs* tactile hairs
245
Describe primary Hairs
Thicker longer "topcoat"
246
Describe secondary hairs
Softer, shorter, wooly "undercoat"
247
Describe tactile hairs
Ex: vibrissaeSensory cells at base
248
What is the growth cycle of a hair
Anagen ➡️ early catagen ➡️ catagen ➡️ telogen ➡️ early anagen➡️ anagen
249
What are the three things shedding is determined by
Environment, hormones, genetics
250
How is shedding determined by environment:
Most outdoor lets usually shed undercoat in spring and fall
251
How is shedding determined by hormones
Bitches sometimes have a large hair loss after welping
252
How is shedding determined by genetics
Non shedding breeds have a very long anagen phase
253
What 3 things are hair composed of
Medulla, cortex, cuticle
254
What is a medulla?
Central core with loosely arranged cells in air or fluid; contain flexible, pigmented keratin
255
What is a cortex
Thickest layer of hair; contains pigmented keratin
256
What is a cuticle (hair)
Single layer of squamous cells; hard keratin
257
What is coat color due to?
1-2 types of melanin in varying amounts
258
What are the 5 gland types of the skin
SebaceousSweat Tail glandsAnal sacs Musk glands
259
Describe sebaceous glands
Found all over body except pawpaws, planum nasaleSimple or branched Areolar shapeProduces and releases sebum into hair follicle
260
Describe sweat glands
Assist in evaporative cooling of body, defensive properties to protect skin Coiled tubular shapeLocated in dermis/hypodermisContains both eccrine and apocrine sweat glands
261
What do eccrine sweat glands do
Releases onto surface: found on paw pads
262
What do apocrine sweat glands do
Release into hair follicle
263
What are musk glands
Produce and release muskUsed in perfumes until modern times
264
What are tail glands
Located on dorsal surface of tail in dogs and catsArea contains large sebaceous glands: contains pheromones Used for identificationAffected by hormones
265
What are anal glands (sacs)
Located and 5 and 7 position inside anusContain sebaceous glands producing secretions with a strong odor. Used in identification and marking of feces Can become clogged
266
What are horns
Keratinized horny sheath covers bony processes of skullGrows continuously and is not shedUsually removed when the animal is young
267
What are claws
Keratinized covering of the distal phalynxCannot be removed thus requires amputationRetrActable in felines
268
What are dewclaws
Remains of digits
269
What are hooves and what are hooved animals called
Ungulates
270
What is laminitis
Inflammation of laminaTissues cannot expand due to hoove wallCompresses lamina, decreased blood flow, lamina does and pulls away from the hoof wall. In severe cases p3 can penetrate the bottom of hoof
271
What are the two types of bones
Cancellous bone and compact bone
272
Describe cancellous bone
Light and spongy
273
Describe compact bone
Heavy and dense
274
What are long bones
Bones that are longer than they are wide
275
What are the ends of long bones called
Epiphyses
276
What are Epiphyses
Cancellous bone covered with a thin layer of compact bone
277
What is the long part of a long bone called
Diaphysis
278
What is the diaphysis primarily composed of
Compact bone
279
What are growth plates composed of
Cartilage
280
What is the name of the growth plate in the long bone
Epiphyseal plates
281
Once an animal reaches his full-size what happens to the epiphyseal plates
They are replaced by solid bone through a process called ossification
282
What do short bones look like
Blocks
283
What are short bones composed of
An inner core of cancellous bone covered by thin layer of compact bone
284
What are the most common short bones on the body
Carpal and tarsal bones
285
Describe flat bones
Mostly flat and thin resembling a bone sandwich
286
Describe the structure of a flat bone
A central layer of cancellous bone covered on both sides by thin layers of compact bone
287
Where are flat bones often found
The pelvic bones and the scapula are flat bones
288
Describe irregular bones
Odd shaped and don't fit into any of the other bone categories
289
What are articular surfaces
Articular surfaces are smooth areas of compact bone that come in contact with smooth surfaces of another bone to form a joint
290
What are articular surfaces covered with
Hyaline cartilage
291
What is a condyle
A usually large round articular surface
292
What bones have the most prominent condyles
The distal ends of the femur and humerus and the occipital bone
293
What are vertebrae considered
Irregular bone
294
What bone types does the skull contain
Flat bones and irregular bones
295
Where is the head of a bone found
At the proximal end of a long bone
296
How is the head joined to the rest of the bone
By a narrowed region called the neck
297
Describe the head of a bone
Mostly spherical in shape
298
What bones have heads
The proximal ends of the femur humerus and ribs
299
What is a facet
A facet is a flat articular surface
300
Where are facets found
It is found on carpal bones tarsal bones vertebrae and some long bones such as the radius and ulna
301
What are processes
Processes are the lumps and bumps on bones
302
What are condyles and heads on long bones considered
Processes but they have a specific articular function so they're classified as articular surfaces
303
What is the processes on bones used for
Is the place where the tendons of muscles attach to the bone. larger processes are where more powerful muscles attach
304
What is the processes of the femur called
Trochanter
305
What is the processes of the humerus called
Tubercle
306
What is the processes of the ischium called
Tuber
307
What is the processes of the tibia called
Crest
308
What is the processes of the ulna called
Olecranon
309
What is the processes of the scapula called
Spine
310
What is the processes of the Atlas called
Wing
311
What are holes in bones called
Foramen
312
What is the purpose of a hole in the bone
It is a passageway for blood vessels or nerves to enter and leave the bone
313
What is a fossa
A fossa is a depressed sunken area on the surface of a bone
314
What are bone fossae usually occupied by
Muscles or tendons
315
What joint is formed when the femur fits into the socket of the Pelvis
Hip joint
316
What joint is formed when the head of the humerus goes into the glenoid cavity of the scapula
Shoulder joint
317
What do the heads of the ribs articulate with
The thoracic vertebrae of the spinal column
318
What is the purpose of the foreman in the pelvic bone
To make the pelvic bone lighter
319
What is the axial skeleton composed of
The bones located on or near the central cranial-caudal axis of the body, the skull, hyoid bone, spinal column, ribs, sternum
320
What is the appendicular skeleton made up of
The main appendages of the body: thoracic limbs and pelvic limbs
321
What are the jagged immovable fibrous joints of the skull called
Sutures
322
What is the only freely movable joint of the skull
Temporomandibular joint
323
What bones are considered the external bones of the cranium
Occipital bone, interparietal bone, parietal bone, temporal bones, frontal bones
324
Describe the Occipital bone
Single bone that forms the base portion of the skull
325
What is the name of the large opening in the occipital bone
Foramen magnum
326
With what do the occipital condyles form a joint
The atlas
327
What is the Atlas
The first cervical vertebra
328
What are the interparietal bones
Two small bones in the dorsal midline between the occipital bone and the parietal bone
329
What are the parietal bones
Two bones that form the dorsolateral portion of the cranium
330
What are the Temporal bones
Two bones that form the ventrolateral portion of the cranium
331
What do the Temporal bones contain
The middle and inner ear structures
332
What joint do the Temporal bones form with the mandible
Temporomandibular joint
333
What are the frontal bones
Two bones that form the forehead part of the skull
334
What do the frontal bones contain
Large frontal sinuses
335
What do the frontal bones form
The rostral lateral part of the cranium and part of the orbit of the eye
336
In horned animals where does the horn develop
Around the cornual processes of the frontal bone
337
What bones are considered external bones of the face
Incisive bones, nasal bones, maxillary bones, lacrimal bones, zygomatic bones, mandible
338
What are incisive bones
Two bones that are the most rostral skull bones
339
What do the incisive bones house in most animals
Upper incisor teeth
340
What are nasal bones
Two bones that form the bridge of the nose- the dorsal part of the nasal cavity
341
What are the maxillary bones
Two bones that make up most of the upper jaw
342
What do the maxillary bones house
Upper canine teeth and upper premolar and molar teeth
343
What do the maxillary bones contain
The maxillary sinuses
344
What are the lacrimal bones
Two small bones that form part of the orbit of the eye
345
What do lacrimal bones contain
The lacrimal sacs
346
What are the lacrimal sacs
Part of the year drainage system
347
What are the zygomatic bones
Cheekbones. Two bones that form a portion of the orbit of the eye and a portion of the zygomatic arch
348
What is the mandible
Lower job. Two bones united rostrally by mandibular symphysis in dogs, cats, cattle
349
In what species is the mandible one solid bone
Swine and horses
350
What is the shaft of the mandible
Horizontal part that houses all lower teeth
351
What is a turbinate
Thin, scroll like bones that fill most of the space in the nasal cavities
352
What is the function of turbinate
Condition inhaled air
353
What is the function of the hyoid bone and where is it located
It attaches to the Temporal bones and supports the base of the tongue, the pharynx, larynx
354
What is the spinal column made up of
Series of irregular bones called vertebrae that extend from the skull to the top of the tail
355
What does a typical vertebra consist of
A ventral body, a dorsal arch, and a group of processes
356
How are the bodies of adjacent vertebrae separated
By cartilaginous intervertebral discs
357
What are the three kinds of processes commonly found on vertebrae
A single spinous process that projects dorsally, two transverse processes that project laterally, and articular processes on the cranial and caudal ends of the vertebra
358
What are the five regions vertebrae are grouped into
Cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae, sacral vertebrae, coccygeal vertebrae
359
What is the first cervical vertebrae called
The Atlas
360
What does the atlas form a joint with
The Occipital bone
361
What is the second cervical vertebrae called
The axis
362
What is the number of thoracic vertebrae equal to
The number of pairs of ribs the animal has
363
Where are the cervical vertebrae found
In the neck region
364
Where are the thoracic vertebrae found
In the chest region
365
Where are the lumbar vertebrae found
In the abdomen region
366
Where are the sacral vertebrae found
In the pelvis region
367
Where are the coccygeal vertebrae found
In the tail region
368
What is special about the sacral vertebrae
They are fused into a single solid structure called the sacrum. the sacrum forms a joint with the ilium of the pelvis.
369
What are ribs
Ribs are flat bones that form the lateral sides of the thorax
370
What do ribs articulate with
The thoracic vertebrae dorsally
371
What is the ventral part of the rib composed of
Costal cartilage
372
What is the sternum made up of
Bones called the sternabrae
373
What is the first sternabra called
The manubrium
374
What is the last sternabra called
Xiphoid
375
What are the thoracic limbs
The front legs
376
What is special about the thoracic limbs
In common domestic animals it has no bony connection to the axial skeleton
377
How is the thoracic limb connected to the axial skeleton
Buy a sling like arrangement of muscles and tendons
378
From proximal to distal end name the bones of the thoracic limb
Scapula, humorous, radius and ulna, carpal bones, metacarpal bones, phalanges
379
What is the point at which the bony part of the rib meets the cartilaginous part of the rib called
Costochondral junction
380
What is the scapula and describe its shape
It is the shoulder blade. It is flat and somewhat triangular in shape. Has a spine like ridge that projects laterally
381
What is the name of the socket part of the ball and socket shoulder joint
Glenoid cavity
382
What joins the glenoid cavity to the main part of the scapula bone
The neck
383
What is a brachium
The upper arm
384
What is a humerus
Long bone of the brachium
385
What is the rounded head on the proximal end of the humerus part of
The ball part of the ball and socket shoulder joint
386
What joins the head of the humerus to the shaft of the humerus
The neck
387
To which large process on the humerus do the shoulder muscles attach
The greater tubercle on the proximal end of the humerus
388
What is the distal articular surface of the humerus collectively called? What is the medial part and lateral part called?
Condyle. The medial part is the trochlea and the lateral part is the capitulum
389
What is the name of the indentation on the caudal surface just proximal to the condyle on the humerus
The olecranon fossa
390
What is the ulna
The long bone of the antebrachium
391
What is the antebrachium
The forearm
392
What is the purpose of the large olecranon process on the proximal end of the ulna
Attachment site for triceps brachii muscle
393
What is the trochlear notch
Articular surface that wraps around the trochlea of the humeral condyle to make the elbow joint a tight secure joint
394
What is the radius
The main weight-bearing bone of the antebrachium
395
What does the head on the proximal end of the radius articulate with
The capitulum of the humeral condyle to form part of the elbow joint
396
What does the neck on proximal end of the radius connect to
Next the head with the shaft of the bone
397
What does the styloid process on the distal end of the radius articulate with
The carpus
398
Where are the carpal bones located
Located immediately distal to the radius and the ulna
399
What do the carpal bones consist of
Two parallel rows of short bones
400
What are the carpal bones in the proximal row named
Radial carpal, ulnar carpal, accessory carpal and sometimes intermediate carpal
401
What are the metacarpal bones
They extend distally from distal row of carpal bones to proximal phalange of digit
402
How many metacarpal bones do dogs and cats have and how do you number them
Five. Number from medial (being number one) to lateral (being number five)
403
What is the large metacarpal bone in ruminants called. And what is it Made of
The cannon bone. It is formed from two fused bones, metacarpal number three and four
404
What are the phalanges
Individual bones that make up toes
405
What is digit number one called and how many phalanges does it have
Is commonly called dewclaw and has two phalanges, proximal and distal
406
How many phalanges does digit 2-4 contain
Contains three phalanges, proximal middle and distal
407
What are the pelvic limbs
The hind legs
408
How is the pelvic limb connected to the axial skeleton
Through the sacroiliac joint that unites the ilium of the pelvis with the sacrum of the spinal column
409
From proximal to distal list the bones of the pelvic limb
Pelvis, femur, tibia and fibula, tarsal bones, metatarsal bones, phalanges
410
How is the pelvis formed
From three separate bones, Ilium, ischium and pubis on each side that eventually fuse into a solid structure
411
What are the names of the separate bones of the pelvis used to indicate
The main regions of the pelvis
412
What is the ilium
The cranial most area of the pelvis
413
What is the ischium
The caudal most area of the pelvis
414
What is the pubis, where is it located, and what does it form
Pubis is located medially and forms the cranial part of the pelvic floor
415
What forms the caudal part of the pelvic floor
The ischium
416
What receives the head of the femur to form the hip joint
The concave acetabulum on lateral surface
417
How are the two halves of the pelvis joined ventrally
By a cartilaginous joint, the pelvic symphysis
418
What are the obturator foramina?
Two large holes on either side of the pelvic symphysis that serve to lighten the pelvis
419
What is a femur
The long bones of the thigh
420
What is the rounded head on the proximal end of the femur called
The ball part of the ball and socket hip joint
421
Where is the greater trochanter located on the femur
On the proximal end
422
What is the purpose of the greater trochanter process
It is the large process to which gluteal muscles attach
423
What are the distal articular surfaces of the femur called
Rounded medial and lateral condyle's
424
What is a trochlea
Smooth articular surface on the cranial surface of the distal end in which the patella rides on the femur
425
What is the patella
The kneecap
426
What is special about the patella
It is the largest sesamoid bone in the body
427
Where's the patella located
In the distal tendon of the large quadriceps femoris muscle
428
What is the function of the patella
Passes down over the trochlea of the femur to insert into the tibial crest
429
What is a Fabellae
The medial and lateral fabellae are two small sesamoid bones in the proximal gastrocnemius muscle tendons of dogs and cats
430
Where are the fabellae located
Just proximal to and caudal to the femoral condyles
431
What is the tibia
Main weight-bearing bone of the lower leg
432
What does the proximal end of the tibia form with the femur
The stifle joint
433
What does the distal end of the tibia form with the Tarsus
The hock joint
434
What do the concave tibial condyle's on the proximal end articulate with
The condyles of the femur
435
What is the tibial crest
A rigid bone that continues distantly from the tibial tuberosity
436
What is the medial malleolus
Medial facing rounded process on distal end of the tibia (knob on medial side)
437
What is a fibula
Thin but complete bone in dog and cat. Incomplete and horses and cattle, only proximal and distal end are present.
438
What is special about the fibula
Does not support significant weight.
439
What is the function of the fibula
Serves as muscle attachment site and helps form stable joint distally with Tarsus
440
What is lateral malleolus?
Laterally facing rounded process on distal end of the fibula (lateral knob on ankle)
441
What are the tarsal bones
The Tarsus and the hock. Located immediately distal to the tibia and fibula
442
What are the tarsal bones equivalent to
The human ankle
443
What do the tarsal bones consist of and how are they named
Two rows of short bones. Bones in the proximal row are named Large tibial tarsal and fibular tarsal and small central tarsal
444
What does the tibia tarsal bones trochlea articulate with
Distal end of the tibia to form the most movable part of the hock joint
445
What is the calcaneal tuberosity
Attachment site for the tendon of the large Gastrocnemius muscle and corresponds to our heel
446
How are the bones in the distal row numbered
From medial to lateral in a similar fashion to the distal row of carpal bones
447
What are metatarsal bones
Bones that extend distally from distal Row of tarsal bones to proximal phalange of digit
448
How many metatarsal bones do dogs and cats have and how are they numbered
Four metatarsal bones and they are numbered from medial to lateral
449
How many digits to dog and cat hind paws have and how are they numbered
Four digits numbered from medial to lateral
450
How many digits do ruminants have
Four digitsTwo support weight and two are nonweightbearing
451
What are joints
Joints are where bones connect with each other
452
What are the three types of joints
Fibrous joints, cartilaginous joints, synovial joints
453
What are fibrous joints
Also known as synarthrosesBones are firmly united by fibrous tissue and allow no movement
454
What is an example of a fibrous joint
Sutures uniting most of the skull bones
455
What is a cartilaginous joint
Also known as amphiarthrosesUnited by fibrocartilage. Allow slight rocking movement
456
What is an example of a cartilaginous joint
Pelvic symphysis
457
What is a synovial joint
Also known as diarthrosesAllow free movement
458
What are the characteristics of synovial joints
Smooth articular surfaces covered with smooth articular cartilageJoint capsule surrounds joint cavity that contains synovial fluidLigaments may connect bones together
459
What do ligaments connect
Bones to bones
460
What did tendons connect
Muscles to bones
461
What are the types of synovial joints
Hinge jointGliding jointPivot jointBall and socket joint
462
Give an example of where you would find a hinge joint
Elbow, joints of digits
463
Give an example of where you would find a gliding joint
Carpus
464
Given example of where you would find a pivot joint
Atlantoaxial joint, the joint between C1 and C2 vertebrae
465
Given example of where you would find a ball and socket joint
Shoulder, hip
466
What movements are possible with a synovial joint
Flexion, extension, abduction, abduction, rotation, circumduction
467
What is flexion
Decreased angle between the bones
468
What is extension
Increased angle between the bones
469
What is adduction
Movement of an extremity toward the median plane, inward
470
What is abduction
Movement of an extremity away from the median plane, outward
471
What is rotation
Twisting, rotational movement
472
What is circumduction
Movement of an extremity so the distal end moves in a circle
473
What are the Belgian blue
Abraded beef cattle that have double muscling phenotype and very lean meat. Heard about condition of hyperplasia (increased number of muscle cells) rather than usual hypertrophy (increased size of cells)
474
What is hyperplasia
Mutation is in the Myostatin gene that normally stops muscle cell division at birth. Mutation also reduces fat deposition and muscle. Had a have high muscle to body weight ratio.
475
What is common in Belgium blues
Dystocia. Difficult births. Common due to size of calf and narrow pins of cow. C-sections are common
476
What is muscle. describe its functions
Muscle is one of four tissue types. Cells can lengthen or shorten due to protein filaments called myofilaments which compose the cytoskeleton. The functions are movement, support body, stabilize joints, reduce heat, compose hollow organs.
477
What is skeletal muscle composed of
Cells composed of alternating thick myosin and thin actin filaments. Give striated appearance. Contraction is the sliding of actin and myosin filaments past each other
478
What is a muscle
Organ composed the bundles of skeletal muscle cells covered in fibers connective tissue.
479
What is a muscle fiber
Muscle cells surrounded by endomysium
480
What is a fascicle
Bundles of cells surrounded by perimysium
481
Define muscle
Bundles of fascicles surrounded by epimysium and blood vessels, nerves, adipose
482
Describe the anatomy of a muscle
Many have a thick central region called the belly. Injection site. Fascia surrounding muscle tapers into tendons and attaches the bones
483
What is an origin
Attachment to nonremovable bone
484
What is insertion
Attachment to a moveable bone
485
What are tendons
Rope like extensions of the epimysium composed of dense regular fibrous connective tissue
486
What is an aponeurosis
Very flat tendon. Sheets of fibrous connective tissue
487
What is a fleshy attachment
Very short attendance. Give the appearance of muscle connecting directly to bone
488
What is the Linea alba
Most prominent and surgically important aponeurosis. Contains no blood vessels or major nerve. Medially unites abdominal muscles. It is from xiphoid process to pubic bones and common site for medial incision and stitches
489
What is the agonist
Muscle that actively produces a movement
490
What is the antagonist
Muscle that opposes the action of the agonist
491
What is a synergist
Muscle that assists the agonist
492
What is a fixator
Stabilize joints allowing actions to occur.
493
What is an action
Flexion of thoracic limb at elbow joint
494
What is the origin, insertion, action of the biceps brachii muscle
Origin supraglenoid tubercle of scapula. Insertion: ulna and radial tuberosities. Action flexes elbow
495
What is the origin, insertion, action of the brachialis
Origin caudalolateral aspect of the proximal humerus. Insertion ulna and radial tuberosities. Action flexes elbow
496
What is the origin, insertion, action of the triceps brachii
Origin caudal border of scapula. Proximal border of humerus. insertion olecranon process of ulna. Action extends elbow
497
What is the origin, insertion, action of the cutaneous trunci muscle
Origin superficial trunk fascia. Insertion superficial shoulder fascia and medial surface of humorous. Action moves the skin of the abdomen
498
What is the masseter muscle used for
Chewing. To close mandible. Origin maxillary, zygomatic archInsertion. Mandible lateral, caudal aspect
499
What is the origin and insertion of the temporalis
Assists in chewing. Origin Temporal bones. Insertion mandible
500
What is the digastricus muscle
Opens the jaw. Mandible
