Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Biomedical Science Y1 (Sem 2) > Anatomy and Physiology > Flashcards

Anatomy and Physiology Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Where does the GI tract mainly lie on?

A

Viscera and pelvis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What’s another name for GI tract?

A

Alimentary canal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Describe the features of the alimentary tract:

A
  • Alimentary canal
  • Continuous hollow tuve
  • Oesophagus to rectum approx 8 meters long
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Function of the GI tract?

A

Breakdown the ingested food into small molecules which can be taken into body tissue

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What are the two types of digestion?

A
  • Chemical (secretion of enzymes = amylase CHO)

- Mechanical (motility = mixing and grinding, mastication - chewing)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What is absorption in the GI tract?

A

Movement of small molecules across the gut wall and into the circulation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Components of the small intestine

A

The first part is called the duodenum. The jejunum is in the middle and the ileum is at the end

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Components of the large intestine

A

The appendix, cecum, colon, and rectum

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What chemical factors are used to break down food into smaller molecules?

A

Digestive juices, such as stomach acid, bile, and enzymes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Does the small intestine have villi?

A

Yes, only the small intestine does

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system?

A

The nerves that are involved in controlling any of our functions beyond our conscience and awareness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What two branches are there for autonomic nervous system?

A

Parasympathetic and sympathetic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Concerning digestion what are parasympathetic nerves involved in?

A

Stimulating digestion

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Concerning digestion what are sympathetic nerves involved in?

A

Inhibiting digestion

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What is peristalsis?

A

The movement of organ walls in the gastrointestinal tract. Peristalsis moves food and liquid through the gastrointestinal tract and mixes the contents within each organs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Role of the oesophagus

A
  • Delivers food to the stomach
  • Muscular tube = 25cm in length and 2cm in diameter
  • Pharynx to the stomach
  • Fast transport: peristalsis
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Bolus direction is generally…

A

Mouth to anus = oral contraction to aboral relaxation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Role of the stomach

A
  • Reservoir = stores food
  • Begins digestion (mechanical and chemical)
  • Satiety = stretching of the stomach wall produces a hormone that tells the brain you are starting to feel full
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

What substances are released during digestion?

A
  • HCl
  • Pepsinogen
  • Mucus
  • Gastrin (hormone)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Gastric juice - HCl

A
  • Low pH = 2
  • Prevents bacterial growth
  • Catalyses cleavage of pepsinogens to pepsin
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Gastric juice - pepsinogen

A
  • Proenzyme (enzyme that is not yet activated) of pepsin

- Digestion of proteins into peptides

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Gastric juice - mucus

A
  • Protects the gut mucosa from the HCl
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Gastric juice - gastrin

A
  • Acid production (hormone that tells gastric gland to make gastrin)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Role of the small intestine

A
  • Digestion, absorption of food into the blood and movement of material
  • Most absorption takes place
  • Absorptive epithelium
  • Peristaltic movement
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Features of the jejunum and ileum

A
  • Highly coiled
  • 4-6m long
  • No definable junction
  • Highly folded = plicae
  • Large surface area
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

What does the duodenum receive?

A

Secretions from gall bladder (bile)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Role of the pancreas

A
  • Exocrine gland 95%
    Neutralise duodenal contents to prevent damage and pH fro enzymes
    1. Water and ions
    2. Bicarbonate
    3. Enzymes = essential for normal digestion
  • Endocrine gland 5% = islets of Langerhans
  • alpha cells = glucagon
  • beta cells = insulin
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

What is chyme?

A

the pulpy acidic fluid which passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

What is enzymatic digestion and where does it lake place?

A

Macromolecules digested into nutrients

- Duodenum and jejunum

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

What enzymes are released from the pancreas for enzymatic digestion?

A
  • Peptidase
  • Lipases
  • Nucleases
  • Amylases
  • Lactases
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

What happens during absorption?

A
  • Nutrients are taken into the bloodstream

- Large surface area = facilitates absorption

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Role of the large intestine

A
  • 1.5m length
  • No nutrients in chyme
  • Removes water, salts, sugars and vitamins vital for the body
  • Slow movement of contents
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Regions of the large intestine

A 
1st cecum = compress material into fecal matter 
2nd ascending colon (up)
3rd transverse colon (right to left)
4th descending colon (down)
5th Sigmoid colon 
6th rectum
  • No villi
  • Tightly packed mucosa = goblet cells for mucus secretion
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

What is tenia coli in the large intestine?

A

3 bands longitudinal muscle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

What is haustra in the large intestine?

A

Pockets undergoing segmentation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

What is the vermiform appendix?

A
  • ‘worm shaped’
  • Finger like, blind-ended tube connected to the cecum
  • Found in the lower right (iliac) quadrant of the abdomen
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Role of the appendix

A
  • Initially believed to be redundant
  • Now believed to have an immune function
  • Store cupboard for ‘good bacteria’ and lymphoid cells
  • Site of appendicitis
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

Colon motility

A
  • Segmented contraction = 99% of the time (materials are moved backwards and forwards)
  • Retains material in the proximal colon (water reabsorption and fermentation)
  • Mixing contents
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Storage and defacation of waste

A
  • Known as a gasto-colic response = 2-3 times a day

- Involves mass movement of materials into aboral end of colon ready for defecation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Where is waste stored?

A

Rectum

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

How many lobes does the liver have?

A

4

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

What is the largest organ in the body?

A

The liver

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Liver - what type of blood is found in the hepatic artery?

A

Oxygenated

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Liver - what type of blood is found in the portal vain?

A

Nutrient rich blood

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Liver - what type of blood is found in the vein?

A

Deoxygenated

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

How is the liver divided?

A
  • Into lobules
  • Portal triad = bile duct, portal vein and hepatic artery
  • Central canal = hepatic vein
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

What is a sinusoid?

A

Irregular tubular space for the passage of blood, taking the place of capillaries and venules in the liver

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

What are kupfer cells?

A
  • Known as liver macrophages
  • Found sitting in the sinusoid
  • Collecting degenerating red blood cells, pigment granules and iron
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

Role of the liver

A

Metabolic powerhouse if the body with more than 500 vital functions.

  • Regulation of nutrient levels in the blood (fats, aa and sugars)
  • Synthesis of plasma proteins and cholesterol
  • Detoxification of poisons
  • Breakdown of haemoglobin
  • Storage of nutrients and vitamins
  • Production of bile
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

Role of the gall bladder

A
  • Function of bile = emulsification of fat

- Concentration, storage and release of bile

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

Where is the gall bladder found

A

Located in the right hypochondriac region beneath the right lobe of the liver

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

How much bile is produced in a day?

A
  • 250ml to 1000ml

- Due to its small size bile is very concentrated (water is removed)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

What does bile contain?

A
  • Water and ions = alkali
  • Bile acids 70%
  • Bile pigments = breakdown products of haemoglobin
  • Organic molecules (cholesterol 4% and phospholipid - lecithin 20%)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

Main function of bile

A
  • Adequate pH for enzymes
  • Emulsification of fat = formation of micelles
  • Excretion of waste products (cholesterol)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

General purpose of bile and gall bladder

A
  1. Neutralise chyme for pancreatic enzymes to work

2. Emulsify fats for better digestion

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

Function of micelle

A

Emulsify dietary fat for lipase breakdown - enables efficient breakdown and absorption of fats

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

The lining of the GI tract is divided into layers:

A
  • Mucosal
  • Submucosal
  • Muscle layers
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

The urinary system consists of:

A
  • two kidneys
  • two ureters
  • one urinary bladder
  • one urethra
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

Abdominal aorta

A

Branches into the kidneys (renal arteries) - perfect location to receive blood flow

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

Function of the kidneys

A
  • Filter blood and regulate blood content and pressure
  • Regulate electrolyte composition (Na and K)
  • Regulate blood pH
  • Excrete metabolic waste products (urea and creatinine)
  • Endocrine function (produce hormones erythropoietin, renin and 1,25-hydroxycholecalciferol = Vitamin D)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

Structure of the kidney

A
  • Each kidney weighs 115g-170g
  • Outer region = cortex
  • Inner region = medulla
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

What are the medulla and cortex composed of?

A

Nephrons

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

What are nephrons?

A

A nephron is the filtration unit of the kidney

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

How does the kidneys filter the blood and produce urine?

A

The nephrons work through a two-step process: the glomerulus filters your blood, and the tubule returns needed substances to your blood and removes wastes.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

What is the functional unit of the kidney?

A

Nephrons

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

How many nephrons are there per kidney?

A

1 million

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

Role of nephrons

A
  • Regulate the conc of water and soluble subtances like sodium salts by filtering the blood
  • Reabsorption of ions
  • Excretion of urine
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

Glomerulus

A

Invagination of a ball of capillaries into the bowman’s capsule

69
Q

What substances are filtered in the glomerulus?

A

The glomerulus filters water and small solutes out of the bloodstream. The resulting filtrate contains waste, but also other substances the body needs: essential ions, glucose, amino acids, and smaller proteins.

70
Q
  1. Role of the glomerular filter
A

Ensures that water solutes and small proteins can pass

  • Fenestrations (small holes for water, solutes and some proteins)
  • Endothelial cells negatively charged - prevents large anion proteins (eg RBC)
71
Q

Consequence of a damaged glomerular filter?

A

Damages to the membrane creates a potential for substances that should be retained to be lost in urine eg proteins

72
Q

Reabsorption and secretion of essential components - kidneys

A

Filtrate collected by the bowman’s capsule is then reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries (blood vessels that surround the nephrons)
Simultaneously - components from plasma are also secreted into the nephron for excretion

73
Q
  1. Proximal convoluted tubule
A

Reabsorbs ions, water and nutrients, removes toxins and adjusts filtrate pH

74
Q
  1. Distal tubule
A

Selectively secretes and absorbs different ions to maintain blood pH and electrolyte balance

75
Q
  1. Descending hoop of Henle
A

Aquaporins allow water to pass from the filtrate into the interstitial fluid

76
Q
  1. Ascending loop of Henle
A

Reabsorbs Na+ and Cl- from the filtrate into the interstitial fluid

77
Q
  1. Collecting duct
A

Reabsorbs solutes and water from the filtrate

78
Q

The lower urinary tract - ureters

A
  • Filtrate passes tot he renal pelvis and into the ureters
  • Ureters deliver the urine to the urinary bladder = stored
  • Micturition = urine is excreted via urethra

No further modifications occur in the ureter, bladder or urethra

79
Q

Role of ureters

A

Tube that delivers urine from the kidneys to the bladder

  • Peristaltic waves that help push urine and transit = prevent ‘reflux’
  • Kidney stones pass through the ureter causing intense pain
80
Q

The bladder

A
  • Located in the hypogastric region (pubic area)

- Different in males and females

81
Q

The process of micturition - urinary bladder

A
  • Urine storage and release is a controlled process
  • Stretch receptors in the bladder wall indicate when 200-300ml of urine has accumulated
  • Coordinated control of the bladder requires: detection of fulness, sphincter control and contraction of bladder smooth muscle
82
Q

What is otitis media?

A

Otitis media is an infection of the middle ear that causes inflammation (redness and swelling) and a build-up of fluid behind the eardrum. Anyone can develop a middle ear infection but infants between six and 15 months old are most commonly affected

83
Q

What are the two main areas of sensory physiology?

A
  • Sensation = the process of sensing our environment

- Perceptions = interpretation of these signals

84
Q

Where does sensory processing take place?

A

Thalamus

85
Q

Thalamus:

A
  • Relays information to the visual cortex

- Outer region of the cerebral cortex linked to visual function

86
Q

Function of the thalamus

A
  • Acts as a translator
  • Inputs are processed
  • Sensory information is relayed to the cerebral cortex
87
Q
  1. Outer layer of the eye
A
  • Cornea = protective epithelial layer (transparent)

- Sclera = tough connective tissue (white of the eye)

88
Q
  1. Middle layer of the eye
A
  • Iris
  • Ciliary body = ciliary muscle
  • Choroid = beneath the sclera, absorbs light, prevents reflection
89
Q
  1. Inner layer of the eye
A
  • Retina = contains photoreceptors (sensors)
90
Q

The iris consists of two smooth muscles…

A
  • Inner circular muscle (involved in constriction)

- Outer radial muscle (involved in dilation)

91
Q

What cell pigments the iris?

A

Melanocyte

92
Q

The retina consists of three layers:

A
  1. Inner layer = contains neurons called ganglion cells
  2. Middle layer = contains neurons called bipolar cells
  3. Outer layer = contains photoreceptors: rods and cones)

Light has to pass through the inner and middle layer and blood vessels before reaching the photoreceptors

93
Q

Rods

A
  • Black and white vision
  • High sensitivity
  • Low light conditions
  • Low visual acuity
94
Q

Cones

A
  • Colour vision
  • Low sensitivity
  • High light conditions
  • High visual acuity
95
Q

What is rhodopsin?

A

Rhodopsin is found in specialized light receptor cells called rods
- Destroyed by bright light

96
Q

What is tritanopia?

A

S-cone defect = blue=yellow spectrum

97
Q

What is deuteranopia?

A

M-cone defect = green-yellow spectrum

98
Q

What is propanopia?

A

L-cone defect = red-yellow spectrum

99
Q

What are sound waves?

A

Sound waves are chemical waves caused by air molecules put into motion = transferring kinetic energy to the next molecule they bump in to

100
Q

What does the CNS consist of?

A

Spinal cord and brain

101
Q

What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consist of?

A
  • Cranial and spinal nerves = have sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) components
  • Ganglia = located outside the brain and spinal cord, are small masses of nervous tissue , containing cell bodies of neurons
  • Sensory receptors = are either part of neurons or specialized cells that monitor changes in the internal or external environment
  • Enteric plexuses = regulate the digestive system
102
Q

Function of the nervous system

A
  • Sensory function = the system senses changes in the internal and external environment through sensory receptors
  • Integrative function = analyse the sensory info, store some aspects, and make decisions regarding appropriate behaviours
  • Motor function = respond to stimuli by initiating action
103
Q

What is the PNS system subdivided into?

A
  • Somatic nervous system (voluntary)
  • Autonomic nervous system (involuntary)
  • Enteric nervous system
104
Q

Spinal cord - external structure

A

The spinal cord begins at the medulla oblongata and terminates around the second lumbar vertebra
- There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves (PNS)

105
Q

Spinal cord - protection

A

Protected by:
- vertebra
- two connective tissue coverings (meninges - 3 coverings around brain and spinal cord and vertebral column - a flexible bony covering)
= cushion of cerebrospinal fluid

106
Q

Spinal cord - internal structure

A
  • Spinal cord us divided into grey and white matter
107
Q

SC - what does grey matter comprise of?

A
  • Cell bodies of motor neurons
  • Association neurons
  • Unmyelinated axons of afferent neurons
108
Q

SC - what does white matter comprise of?

A
  • Bundles of myelinated axons of motor and sensory neurons
109
Q

Dorsal (sensory) root

A

sensory nerve fibers conduct nerve impulses into the spinal cord

110
Q

Ventral (motor) root

A

motor neuron axons conduct impulses out to the periphery

111
Q

Spinal cord - input

A

Sensory fibers enter through the dorsal horn and terminate in specific sites according to:
- fibre type
- modality
- intensity
Sensory fibers synapse onto second order neurons that ascend to the brain through white matter

112
Q

Spinal cord - tracts

A

The white matter is divided into columns
Each column contains bundles of axons that have a common origin or destination and carry similar information - called tracts
- sensory (ascending) tracts conduct nerve impulses towards the brain
- motor (descending) tracts conduct impulses down the cord

113
Q

Tract names:

A
  • Spinothalamic = spinal cord to thalamus
  • Corticospinal = cortex to spinal cord
    (tract names always link to origin and destination)
114
Q

Brain - principal parts

A
  • The brain is protected by the cranial meninges and the cranial bones
  • The principle parts of the brain are:
    >brain stem
    >diencephalon
    >cerebrum
    >cerebellum
115
Q

Brain - brain stem

A
  • Most cranial nerves originate from the brain stem

- Primitive region, involved in basic needs = sleep, breathing, autonomic

116
Q

Brain - cerebrum

A
  • Largest part of the brain
  • The cerebral cortex is composed of grey matter
  • The cerebral white matter contains tracts that connect to other parts if the nervous system
117
Q

Each cerebral hemisphere is further subdivided into four lobes:

A
  • occipital
  • pariental
  • frontal
  • temporal
118
Q

Cerebral functional areas

A
  • Sensory areas of the cerebral cortex = concerned with the reception and interpretation of sensory impulses
  • Motor areas = regions that govern muscular movement
  • Association areas = concerned with complex integrative function such as memory, emotions, reasoning, will, judgement, personality and intelligence
119
Q

Examples of flat bones:

A
  • Sternum
  • Scapulae
  • Ribs
  • Cranial bones
120
Q

Examples of long bones:

A
  • Humerus
  • Tibia
  • Femur
  • Fibula
  • Ulna
  • Metatarsal
  • Metacarpal
  • Phalanges
121
Q

Examples of short bones:

A
  • Carpals

- Tarsals

122
Q

Examples of irregular bones:

A
  • Vertebrae

- Sacrum

123
Q

Axial skeleton

A

Made up of the bones in your head, neck, back and chest

124
Q

Appendicular skeleton

A

Your appendicular skeleton is made up of everything else — the bones that attach (append) to your axial skeleton. Your appendicular skeleton includes the bones in your shoulders, pelvis and limbs, including your arms, hands, legs and feet

125
Q

Bone architecture

A
  • Cortical bone (compact bone) = strong, dense, regular structure
  • Trabecular bone (cancellous, spongy bone) = lightweight, irregular lattice, porous
  • Marrow cavity
126
Q

Bone composition

A
  • 30% = organic (2%cells and 98% matrix)
  • 70% mineral
  • Made up of collagen, hydroxyapatite, osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts
    Unlike concrete, bone i snot fixed or static
127
Q

Osteoblasts (BuiLders)

A
  • Form bone
  • Derived from mesenchym stem cell line = similar to fibroblast, chondroblast
  • Found on the surface of bone marrow cavity = secrete proteinous organic matrix (high mitochondria and golgi content), mineralisation of matrix by secreting alkaline phosphatase
128
Q

What do osteoblasts become when trapped by new bone?

A

Osteocytes, osteoblasts also secrete factors to activate osteoclasts and other cells

129
Q

What happens to the remaining osteoblasts?

A

They undergo apoptosis - cell death

130
Q

Osteoclasts (CLearance)

A
  • Breakdown bone (bone clearance)
  • Derived from blood cell line (similar to macrophage, monocyte)
  • Formed on fusion of precurser cells to make large, multinucleated syncytium (stimulated by RANK receptors)
131
Q

Bone resorption

A

Resorption is the breakdown and assimilation of old bone in the cycle of bone growth. The process of resorption (remodelling) involves the removal of hard bone tissue by osteoclasts followed by the laying down of new bone cells by osteoblasts
- H+ ions, proteases, collagenase released under ruffles border

132
Q

What is bone resorption required for?

A
  • Radial growth
  • Bone remodelling
  • Maintaining vascularity
  • Liberating ions
133
Q

Is bone the perfect material?

A
  • Strong as iron, light as wood
  • Adapts to functional requirements
  • Repairs itself
134
Q

Functions of the skeleton:

A
  • Structural support for heart, lungs and marrow
  • Protection for brain, uterus and other internal organs
  • Attachment sites for muscles allowing limb movement
  • Mineral reservoir for calcium and phosphorus
  • Defence against acidosis
  • Trap for some dangerous minerals such as lead
135
Q

Muscle types

A
  • Skeletal (leg…)
  • Cardiac (heart)
  • Smooth (internal organs)
136
Q

Skeletal muscle

A
  • Striated, voluntary

- Attach to bone by tendon and connective tissue

137
Q

Cardiac muscle

A
  • Striated and involuntary
138
Q

Smooth muscle

A
  • Involuntary and non-striated
139
Q

How does muscle attach to bone?

A
  • Indirect attachment (most common) = epimysium extends beyond muscle as a tendon
  • Direct attachment = epimysium adheres/fuses to periosteum
140
Q

Origin muscle attachment

A
  • Proximal attachment

- Muscle attaches to least moveable area of the bone of axial skeleton

141
Q

Insertion muscle attachment

A
  • Distal attachment

- Muscle attaches to the bone that moves most

142
Q

Anatomy of skeletal muscle

A
  • Perimysium = binds muscle fibers together
  • Epimysium = sheath enveloping entire muscle
  • Endomysium = sheath surrounding muscle fibre
  • Sarcolemma = contains cytoplasm (sarcoplasm)
  • Myofibrils = contains actin and myosin
  • Sarcomeres = contains actin and myosin
143
Q

What are the three types of movement?

A
  • Reflex
  • Rhythmic
  • Voluntary
144
Q

Reflex movement

A
  • External initiation
  • Least complex with integration at spinal cord
  • Knee (patellar) reflex, couch, posture
145
Q

Rhythmic movement

A
  • Voluntary initiation and termination
  • Moderate complexity, integration at spinal cord (acts as pattern generator) but needs higher centre input
  • Walking
146
Q

Voluntary movement

A
  • External stimuli or at will
  • Complex, integrated in cerebral cortex
  • Learned behaviour , can develop into ‘muscle memory’ = shows plasticity
  • Playing piano
147
Q

Neurons

A

Transmit information by electrical signals

  • Afferent neuron
  • Efferent neuron
  • Interneuron
148
Q

Epithelial cells

A
  • Vary in shape
  • Cells join together to form a barrier. Allows restricted passage of material
  • Found where body fluids must be separated from external environment lining
149
Q

Connective tissue

A

In most cases:
- Widely scattered cells embedded in a mass of noncellular material, the extracellular matrix = contains a dense meshwork of proteins and other large molecules
In broader sense:
- Encompasses fluids eg. blood and lymph
- Connects the various parts of the body by providing means of communication

150
Q

Structure of the heart

A
  • Bulk of the heart is made up of cardiac muscle cells, termed the myocardium
  • Inner surface of myocardium is lined with a thin layer of cells known as endothelial cells
151
Q

Function of the heart

A

Right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs - low pressure little resistance to blood flow and short distance to the lungs
Left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to all organs of the body - higher pressure, thick muscular wall

152
Q

How does the heart pump blood around the body?

A

The right ventricle pumps the oxygen-poor blood to the lungs through the pulmonary valve. The left atrium receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pumps it to the left ventricle through the mitral valve. The left ventricle pumps the oxygen-rich blood through the aortic valve out to the rest of the body.

153
Q

Valves of the heart

A
  • Atrioventricular valces (bicuspid/mitral and tricuspid)

- Semi lunar valves (aortic and pulmonary)

154
Q

Chordae tendinae

A
  • Atrioventricular valves are attached firmly to specialised tendon called chordae tendinae
  • Regulated by the papillary muscles
  • When the ventricles contract the papillary muscles also contract. This tightens the chordiae tendinae and prevents the valve cusps from everting (turning inside out) into the atria
155
Q

Function of platelets (thrombocytes)

A

Cell fragments that play a crucial role in blood clotting

  • Conc = 3000,000mm3
  • Size = a diameter of 2-4um
156
Q

Function of WBC (leukocytes)

A

To defend the body against pathogenic organisms

- Size = diameter of 10-20um

157
Q

Types of WBCs

A
  • Neutrophils = phagocytosize pathogens
  • Lymphocytes = produce antibodies and antimicrobial chemicals
  • Monocytes = phagocytosize pathogens
  • Eosinophils = involved in defense against parasites and in the allergic response
  • Basophils = secrete histamine and heparin (anti-thrombotic agent)
158
Q

What is plasma composed of?

A

Watery liquid containing many dissolved substances

  • Water
  • Plasma proteins
  • Non-protein organic compounds
  • Inorganic compounds
159
Q

Types of blood vessels

A
  • Arteries
  • Arterioles
  • Capillaries
  • Venules
  • Veins
160
Q

Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

A
  • Make up 45% of the total blood volume in men and 42% in women
  • Diameter = 7um, these are shaped as biconcave disc
161
Q

What are cardiac monocytes?

A

They contain majority of the contractile elements for the heart (eg. actin and myosin filaments)

162
Q

Three phases of cardiac action potential

A
  • Rapid depolarisation of plasma membrane (sarcolemma) = voltage gated Na+ channels open, Na+ influx into cell
  • Plateau (slower phase) = voltage gated Ca2+ channels open, Ca2+ entry
  • Repolarisation = voltage gated K+ channels open K+ outflow
163
Q

P wave - ECG

A
  • SA node fires, atrial depolarisation

- Atrial systole

164
Q

QRS complex - ECG

A
  • AV node fires, ventricular depolarisation
  • Ventricular systole
  • Atrial repolarisation and diastole - signal obscured
165
Q

T wave - ECG

A
  • Ventricular repolarisation
166
Q

What is blood pressure?

A

Is a measurement of the force exerted by the blood circulating in the arteries against the walls
- Normal blood pressure is 120/80 mm Hg

167
Q

The 2 readings taken from blood pressure:

A
  • Systolic pressure (ventricular contraction)

- Diastole pressure = (ventricular relaxation)

168
Q

Stroke volume (SV) is measured by:

A

SV = EDV - ESV (130-60 = 20mL)

169
Q

Cardiac output (CO) is measured by:

A

CO = SV x HR

Biomedical Science Y1 (Sem 2) (6 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions