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Principles > Anatomy > Flashcards

Anatomy Flashcards

1
Q

What is the axial skeleton?

A

The bones located at the midline of the body (skull, neck, trunk)

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2
Q

What is the appendicular skeleton?

A

Bones lateral to the midline (pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, lower limb)

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3
Q

Where is the humerus?

A

Superior to the radius and ulna in the arm

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4
Q

What are the two bones of the forearm and which is which?

A

Radius (lateral) and ulna (medial)

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5
Q

Describe the bones of the hand.

A

Carpal bones (wrist)
Metacarpals (phalanges)
Phalanges (fingers)

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6
Q

Where is the femur?

A

In the leg superior to the tibia and fibula

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7
Q

What are the bones in the lower leg?

A

Tibia (medial) and fibula (lateral)

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8
Q

What are the bones of the foot?

A

Tarsal bones (hindfoot/ midfoot)
Metatarsals (forefoot)
Phalanges (toes)

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9
Q

What are bony features?

A

Bony features develop during bone growth and aid the bone in their function.

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10
Q

How are bony features formed?

A

1- an adjacent structure (nerve,tendon,blood vessel, bone) applies a force to the developing bone moulding it’s shape accordingly
2- an adjacent structure is developing at the same time as the bone so the bone has to grow around the other structure forming a foramen (hole)

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11
Q

What makes up the skeleton?

A

Bone and cartilage

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12
Q

Describe bone.

A

-hard connective tissue
Is important in support and protection of the body organs, calcium metabolism, red blood cell formation and attachment for skeletal muscles

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13
Q

Describe cartilage.

A

Cartilage is less rigid than bone and is located where mobility is required - at articulations (joints)

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14
Q

What are the different types of joints?

A

Synovial (most mobile, least stabile)
Cartilaginous
Fibrous (least mobile, most stable)

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15
Q

What are the sensations detected by the sensory receptors of the joint nerves ?

A

Pain, touch, temperature, proprioception (sense of spacial awareness)

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16
Q

What can happen when joints are dislocated?

A

The arteries can be damaged, dangerously compromising blood supply distal to the joint

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17
Q

where is skeletal muscle found?

A 
Epidermis (epithelium)
Dermis (collagen/elastic fibres)
Superficial fascia (adipose tissue)
Deep fascia (fibrous tissue)
Skeletal muscle
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18
Q

Describe skeletal muscle

A
  • Produce movement
  • usually found deep to fascia
  • tough fibrous connective tissue covering
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19
Q

What are the types of skeletal muscle?

A

Circular, pennate, fusiform, flat with apponeurosis, quadrate
- Longer muscle fibres have greater potential range of shortening and range of movement

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20
Q

What are origins and insertions ?

A

Skeletal muscle is usually attached at at least 2 areas
The origin(s) is one side of a joint while the insertion(s) is the other side
(The origin is usually proximal)

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21
Q

Describe skeletal muscle contraction.

A

The only thing a skeletal muscle can do is move the origin and insertion closer together during contraction. This is due to shortening of the muscle fibres.

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22
Q

What is a tendon?

A

When skeletal muscle attaches to bone it is called a tendon. It is non- contractile

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23
Q

What is an aponeurosis?

A

A flattened tendon most commonly associated with flat muscles which attaches muscle to soft tissue rather than bone.

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24
Q

What does the direction of movement depend on?

A

Which joint is spanned, the long axis of the muscle, the aspect of the joint that is spanned and the shapes of the articular surfaces of the joint

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25
Q

What does the shape of the articular surface tell you about possible movement?

A

The shape of the articular surface determines how much movement is possible (eg shoulder joint has a socket allowing circumduction but he elbow doesn’t)

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26
Q

Describe the directional movement of the deltoid.

A

The posterior fibres allow extension of the shoulder, the middle fibres allow abduction of the shoulder and the anterior fibres allow flexion in the shoulder

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27
Q

What are the two types of reflex ?

A

Stretch reflex and flexion withdrawal reflex

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28
Q

What is the flexion withdrawal reflex?

A

When u touch something potentially damaging a sudden flexion occurs to withdraw from the danger by the reflex arc through the spinal cord.

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29
Q

What are stretch reflexes?

A

When a tendon hammer is used to apply a brief sudden stretch to the muscle via it’s tendon, the normal reflex is to contract which results in a brief twitch of the muscle belly or movement in a normal direction. These reflexes are protective against over stretching.

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30
Q

Describe the deep tendon reflex (reflex arc)

A

The sensory nerve from the muscle secrecy’s the stretch and tells the spinal cord > the signal travels across the synapse in the spinal cord between sensory and motor nerves > the motor nerve passes message for muscles to contract > muscle contracts.
The brain prevents this from being overly brisk.

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31
Q

What does a normal stretch reflex tell you?

A

That’s the muscle, sensory nerve fibres, motor nerve fibres, spinal cord connection, neuromuscular junction and the descending controls from the brain all function normally.

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32
Q

What is paralysis?

A

When a muscle doesn’t have a functioning motor nerve and cannot contract. This will cause reduced muscle tone.

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33
Q

What is spasticity ?

A

When the muscle has an intact and functioning motor nerve and it is the descending controls from the brain that aren’t working. They will have increased muscle tone.

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34
Q

What is atrophy?

A

=wasting of muscles
The muscle fibres become smaller and reduce in size as a result of inactivity. This can happen as a result of immobilisation after a fracture, damage to motor nerve supplies or lack of movement.

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35
Q

What is hypertrophy?

A

When skeletal muscle enlarges (each individual myocyte enlarges)

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36
Q

Where is the normal site of fertilisation?

A

The ampulla

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37
Q

Describe the pelvic cavity

A

It lies within the bony pelvis and is continuous with the abdominal cavity.
It is between the pelvic inlet and pelvic outlet.

38
Q

What is the pelvic floor?

A

An internal wall of skeletal muscle that separates the pelvic cavity and perineum
It has openings for the distal alimentary (urine), reproductive and renal tracts

39
Q

Where is the perineum?

A

Inferior to the pelvic floor and between proximal parts of the lower limbs

40
Q

What is the peritoneum?

A

The pelvic “roof” formed by the parietal peritoneum
The parietal peritoneum lines the abdominal cavity and is firmly attached to the walls. It drapes over the pelvic viscera creating pouches

41
Q

What are the pouches of the peritoneum?

A

Vesicles-uterine pouch (between the bladder and uterus)
Rectouterine pouch / pouch of Douglas (between the uterus and rectum) - any excess fluid will collect here as it’s the most inferior part

42
Q

What structures are involved in the surface anatomy of the perineum?

A

The external urethral orifice (urinary tract)
Vaginal orifice
Anus

43
Q

What are the female reproductive organs and accessory organs?

A

Organ = ovaries

Accessory organs = uterine tubes, uterus and vagina

44
Q

What are the 3 layers of uterus wall?

A

Perimetrium (outer layer)
Myometrium (middle layer)
Endometrium (internal lining - what comes away during menstruation)

45
Q

Describe the process of fertilisation and menstruation in females

A

1- ova develops in the ovaries
2- one ovum is released each menstrual cycle from the ovary into the peritoneal cavity
3- ovum is gathered by fimbriae into infundibulum of uterine tube
4- moved along the uterine tube by cilia
5- during menstruation an unfertilised ovum is expelled by contractions of the myometrium

46
Q

What is ectopic pregnancy?

A

When the fertilised ovum implants out with the uterine cavity (97% tubal pregnancy, 3% abdominal pregnancy)
Potential emergency with danger of haemorrhage (abdominal pregnancy can go to full term and survive but it’s rare)

47
Q

How are females sterilised ?

A

Tubal ligation of both uterine tubes. They are clipped, cut or cauterised which blocks the lumen

48
Q

Describe the surface anatomy of the male perineum

A

The anatomical position is when the penis is erect ( under surface is anterior)
Made up of the anus, penis, scrotum, urethra, prepuce (foreskin) and the external urethral orifice
The penis is made up of the root of the penis, body of penis and glans

49
Q

Describe the development of the testes

A 
During development the testis are originally on the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity but by birth they have descended into the scrotum.
This happens by travelling through the anterior abdominal wall via the inguinal canal
The tube (VAS DEFERENS) that sperm pass through follows the testis into the scrotum 
The vas almost connects to the urethra
50
Q

Describe spermatogensis

A
  • Sperm is produced in the seminiferous tubules where the body temperature is around 1 degree below core body temp
  • the sperm then pass to rete testis
  • then head into the epididymis
  • the epididymis becomes the vas deferens
51
Q

What is the spermatic cord?

A

The spermatic cord contains the vas deferens, the testicular artery and the pampiniform plexus of veins (keeps testes in place)

52
Q

What is torsion of the testes?

A

Twisting of the spermatic cord which disrupts blood supply and causes severe pain with a danger of testicular necrosis

53
Q

What happens inside the penis during erection?

A

The 3 cylinder of erectile tissue become filled with blood at arterial pressure during erection

54
Q

What are the male reproductive organs and accessory organs?

A

Organ = testes

Accessory organs = the vas deferens, seminal glands, prostate glands and penis

55
Q

Describe male sterilisation

A

(Vasectomy) the vas deferens is transected and it’s lumen sutured closely (bilaterally)

56
Q

what do nerves do?

A
  • sensory functions
  • ‘special senses’ = taste smell sight hearing and balance
  • motor functions
  • reflexes
57
Q

what does the CNS consist of?

A

brain and spinal cord

58
Q

what does the PNS consist of?

A

all tissue not in the CNS. (spinal nerves, cranial nerves, autonomic nerves)

59
Q

what is the axon?

A

the longest extension of a neurone (the rest are dendrites)

60
Q

what is a collection of nerve cell bodies in the PNS called?

A

ganglion

61
Q

what are bundles of axons ?

A

nerves (in PNS)

62
Q

what are peripheral nerves?

A

bundles of axons wrapped in connective tissue travelling to/from the same region or structure. bundles can leave as branches.

63
Q

what are the 6 nerve modalities ?

A

-somatic sensory
-somatic motor
-special sensory
-visceral afferent
-sympathetic
-parasympathetic
(a nerve fibre can only have one modality)

64
Q

what the difference between motor and sensory nerves?

A 
motor = efferent = action potential towards body wall, body cavity or organ
sensory = afferent = action potential towards brain.
65
Q

what are the four lobes of the brain?

A

frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal

66
Q

what is the outermost layer of the cerebral hemispheres?

A

cortex (made up of gyri and sulci

67
Q

what are the cranial fossae?

A

(where cranial nerves enter and exit the cranial cavity)

  • anterior cranial fossa (CN 1)
  • middle cranial fossa ( CNs 2-6)
  • posterior cranial fossa (CNs 7-12)
  • CNs 5 has a,b and c
68
Q

what are the four segments of the spinal cord?

A
  • cervical (C1-8)
  • thoracic (T1-12)
  • lumbar (L1-5)
  • sacral/ coccygeal (only one - Co)
69
Q

how many pairs of spinal nerves are there?

A

31

70
Q

where are the two spinal enlargements?

A
  • cervical

- lumbosacral

71
Q

how many vertebrae are there?

A

33 (4 coccygeal fused)

72
Q

how are spinal nerves named?

A

according to the vertebrae above it.

-except in the cervical region where they are named according to the vertebrae below it.

73
Q

where does the spinal cord end?

A
  • L1/2
  • conus medullaris
  • adult vertebral column is longer than the adult spinal cord.
74
Q

what is the cauda equine?

A

when lumbar and sacral nerve rootd descend into the vertebral canal they reach the cauda equine.

75
Q

what are the rules of spinal nerve anatomy?

A
  • spinal nerve supply the soma (body wall)
  • are located only within the intervertebral formina
  • they connect with structure of the soma via rami and the spinal cord via roots and rootlets.
76
Q

what are the types of rami?

A
  • posterior rami (smaller) - supply posterior strip
  • anterior rami (larger) - supply the remainder of the posterior part, the lateral and the anterior parts of the strips. - supplied via plexus.
77
Q

what do anterior root and rootlets contain?

A

motor nerves

78
Q

what do posterior root and rootlets contain?

A

sensory nerves

79
Q

what are dermatomes?

A

areas of skin supplied by both the anterior and posterior rami of a spinal nerve. (except limbs - no posterior rami)
T4 = nipple
T10 = umbilicus

80
Q

what is a nerve plexus?

A

a network of intertwined anterior rami

81
Q

where is the cervical plexus?

A

C1-4

82
Q

what are the different types of plexus?

A
  • cervical
  • brachial
  • lumbar
  • sacral
83
Q

where is the brachial plexus?

A

C5-T1

84
Q

where is the lumbar plexus?

A

L1-4

85
Q

where is the sacral plexus?

A

L5-S4

86
Q

what are examples of somatic sensation?

A
  • touch, vibration and proprioception
  • temp
  • pain is sharp, stabbing and well localised
87
Q

what are spinal reflexes like in somatic sensation?

A
  • extremely rapid
  • misses out pathway to the brain
  • involuntary and protective response.
88
Q

what are sensations in the ANS (visceral afferents) ?

A
  • touch
  • temp
  • pain is ischaemic (reduced blood flow) and colicky (obstructed) - described as dull, achy, nauseating and poorly localised (might be well localised if referred to body wall)
89
Q

where does sympathetic outflow exit the spinal cord?

A
  • T1-L2 spinal nerves
90
Q

where do parasympathetic axons/nerves leave the CNS?

A
  • cranial nerves 3,7,10

- sacral spinal nerves

Principles (15 decks)

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