anatomy Flashcards
1
Q
define skeleton
A
the internal framework of the body made up of 206 bones
2
Q
define bone
A
a hard, whitish, living tissue that makes up the skeleton; bones are lightweight but strong and perform many functions
3
Q
what is shape and support?
A
the skeleton provides shape and support for the body. It forms the frame to which our muscles can attach and in which our organs can sit. eg. backbone enables up to stay up right
4
Q
what is muscle attachment for movement?
A
muscles are attached to the skeleton. Movement occurs when muscles contract and pull on bones making them move about a joint. eg. the biceps muscle connects the shoulder and elbow and helps with lifting
5
Q
what is protection for vital organs?
A
internal organs are soft, delicate and easily damaged. These vital organs are protected by the skeleton.
6
Q
what is blood production?
A
the centre of some large bones contains red bone marrow, which creates red blood cells. eg. the pelvis and femur are both important in blood production
7
Q
what is the function of long bones?
A
these act as lever to produce a large range of movement. eg. femur, tibia, humerus, ulna, radius, phalanges, clavilce
8
Q
what is the function of short bones?
A
these are small and squat bones that enable movement. They can provide movement in lots of directions and also give strength. eg. carpals, tarsals
9
Q
what is the function of flat bones?
A
these provide a large surface area for muscles to attach to. They also provide protection for organs. eg. pelvis, cranium, scapula
10
Q
what is the function of irregular bones?
A
these bones provide protection and support. They are shaped to suit the specific job they have to do. eg. vertebrae
11
Q
what are fixed/immoveable joints (fibrous joints)?
A
these bones cannot move at all and are found in the skull (cranium). The joints are also known as ‘fibrous joints’ as the bones are joined via fibrous connective tissue
12
Q
what are slightly moveable joints (cartilaginous)?
A
the bones in these joints can move a small amount as they are linked together by ligaments and cartilage (which absorbs the movement). They are found in the vertebral column and the ribs.
13
Q
what are freely moveable joints (synovial)?
A
synovial joints have a greater amount of movement and include the elbow, shoulder, knee and hip. These joints have a number of different parts.
14
Q
what is the role of the synovial membrane?
A
surrounds the joint capsule with a synovial fluid
15
Q
what is the role of synovial fluid?
A
acts as a lubricant that reduces friction in the joint; allows for smoother movement and reduces wear and tear
16
Q
what is the role of ligaments?
A
the strong, elastic fibres that hold the bones together and keep them in place
17
Q
what is the role of cartilage?
A
a strong but flexible material found at the end of the bones that acts as a cushion to stop bones knocking together
18
Q
what is the role of the joint capsule?
A
the structure that surrounds and protects the joint, holding the bones together; made up of an outer fibrous and an inner synovial membrane
19
Q
what is the role of tendons?
A
a tough band of fibrous tissue that connects muscle to bone and enables joints to withstand tension
20
Q
what is a ball and socket joint?
A
shoulders and hips: they provide a large range of movement in every direction. One bone has a bulge or ball that fits into a socket in the other bone.
21
Q
what is a hinge joint?
A
elbow and knee: allow movement in one direction. Your elbows and knees allow you to bend or straighten your arms and legs.
22
Q
what is flexion?
A
flexion involves bending a part of the body eg. bending your arm at the elbow
23
Q
what is extension?
A
extension means straightening a part of the body eg. straightening your arm at the elbow
24
Q
what is abduction?
A
abduction is a sideways movement away from the centre of the body eg. lifting your arm from your side
25
what is adduction?
adduction is a sideways movement towards the centre of the body
26
what is rotation?
rotation is a turning point around an imaginary line. Turning your head from left to right i one example, with the imaginary line running vertically through your skull
27
what is circumduction?
when the end of a bone moves in a circle. eg. swinging your arms in a circle at your shoulder
28
what is plantar flexion?
plantar flexion is the movement in the ankle joint that points the foot away from the leg
29
what is dorsiflexion?
the movement in the ankle where the toes are brought closer to the shin
30
what is a muscle?
a band of fibrous tissue that has the ability to contract, producing movement in the body
31
what is the role of the trapezius?
holds and rotates your shoulders. Moves your head back and sideways.
32
what is the role of deltoids?
raises each arm forwards, backwards and sideways at the shoulder
33
what is the role of pectorals?
moves the arm at the shoulder through adduction
34
what is the role of biceps?
bends your arm at the elbow
35
what is the role of triceps?
straightens your arm at the elbow
36
what is the role of the latissiumus dorsi?
pulls your arm down at the shoulder. Draws it behind your back
37
what is the role of the abdominals?
flexes your spine so that you can bend forwards. Creates a pull in the abdomen.
38
what is the role of hip flexors?
supports movement of the leg and knee upwards
39
what is the role of gluteals?
pulls your leg back at the hip. Raises it sideways at the hip. The biggest of the gluteal muscles is the gluteus maximus
40
what is the role of quadriceps?
straightens the leg at the knee. Keeps the leg straight to stand up
41
what is the role of hamstrings?
bends the leg at the knee
42
what is the role of the gastrocnemius?
straightens the ankle joints so you can stand on your tiptoes
43
what is the role of the tibialis anterior?
helps with dorsiflexion, the action of pulling the foot towards the shin
44
what are voluntary muscles?
muscles that create the movement. They usually work across a joint. The muscle is attached to the bones at the joint by tendons.
45
what is the origin?
where a muscle joins a stationary bone
46
what is an insertion?
where a muscle joins a moving bone
47
what is an agonist?
the muscle that contracts to create movement (also called the prime mover)
48
what is an antagonist?
the muscle that relaxed during the movement
49
what are antagonistic pairs?
antagonistic pairs of muscles work in opposition; they create movement when one (the agonist) contracts and the other (the antagonist) relaxes
50
what are isotonic contractions?
muscles change length as they contract. Isotonic contractions can either shorten the muscle (called concentric contraction) or lengthen it (called eccentric contraction). eg. in a bicep curl when you lift the weight the bicep shortens while the triceps lengthen
51
what are isometric contractions?
muscles contract, but stay the same length. An example is the muscles in the vertebral column that maintain the body's posture- this is important during a rugby scrum
52
what are muscle fibres?
the cells or basic building block of the muscle; they contract when a message from the brain tells them to, enabling movement
53
what are slow twitch fibres?
they use oxygen to fire; they take longer to get going, but they can work for longer without getting tired
54
what are fast twitch fibres?
they are thicker and quicker to contract, but they wear out more quickly. They are more powerful an lower in endurance, and they are activated when the body nears maximum exertion.
55
what are slow twitch fibres good for?
endurance
56
what are fast twitch fibres good for?
strength and power
57
what happens in aerobic exercise?
your heart rate increases to supply oxygenated blood to the muscles so they can keep performing at moderate levels over an extended period of time
58
what happens during anaerobic exercise?
a short period of high-intensity activity, where your body's demand for oxygen is greater then the supply available. Oxygenated blood cannot be supplied to the muscles quickly enough. The body uses up energy sources stored in the muscles with a possible build-up of lactic acid in the muscles
59
what is the respiratory system?
the series of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide
60
describe the pathway of air into the body
oxygen enters the respiratory system through the nasal passages (nose) and mouth. It travels down the trachea, which divides into left and right bronchi, the main pathways into the lungs. The airways begin to narrow and branch off into smaller airways called bronchioles. Finally, oxygen reaches the alveoli (a collection of airways covered by capillaries), where gaseous exchange occurs.
61
what is gaseous exchange?
the process in the lungs whereby oxygen is delivered to the bloodstream, while carbon dioxide is removed from it; takes place in the alveoli
62
how are alveoli adapted for gas exchange?
- there are millions of alveoli in each lung, presenting a large, moist surface area for exchange to take place
- each individual alveolus is surrounded by blood capillaries which ensure a good blood supply
- the walls of the capillaries supplying the blood are only one cell thick, allowing the gas to pass through easily through diffusion
- the alveoli are well ventilated- air can reach them easily
63
what are alveoli?
small air sacks in the lungs where gaseous exchange takes place
64
what happens to the volume of the lungs during breathing?
increases when breathing in; decreases when breathing out
65
what happens to the pressure in the lungs during breathing?
increases when breathing in; reduces when breathing out
66
how does exercise affect the respiratory system?
over a sustained period of time, exercise will help increase the strength of the muscles involved in breathing (intercostal and diaphragm). This enables them to expand further, increasing the volume of the lungs and letting more oxygen to be drawn into them. It means athletes can compete at a higher intensity for longer.
67
what is tidal volume?
how much air you can inhale in one breath
68
what it vital capacity?
the maximum amount of air you can breathe out
69
what is residual volume?
the amount of air left in your lungs after breathing out
70
what is minute ventilation?
the volume of air, in litres, that you breathe per minute
71
how do you calculate minute ventilation?
tidal volume x number of breaths per minute= minute ventilation
72
what is the circulatory system?
that body's transport system that consist of the lungs, heart, blood vessels and blood
73
what is blood?
a liquid containing 4 components: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets, each with a specific function
74
what is haemoglobin?
a dark red chemical responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood
75
what is the role of plasma?
plasma consists mainly of water to allow substances to dissolve and be transported easily
76
what is the role of red blood cells?
contains haemoglobin which reacts with oxygen from the lungs to form oxyhaemoglobin
77
what is the role of white blood cells?
part of the immune system: defend the body against pathogens by engulfing the or creating anti-bodies to attack them
78
what is the role of platelets?
contain an enzyme that causes blood to clot when there is damage to blood vessels which are exposed to air
79
what is the role haemoglobin?
to carry oxygen from the respiratory organs to the rest of the body
80
what are arteries?
muscular, elastic tubes that transport oxygenated blood away from the heart. They have a small internal lumen. Arterial blood is pumped at high pressure because of the strong pumping action of the heart
81
what are veins?
veins carry deoxygenated blood to the heart. They contain blood under low pressure, and so have thinner walls and a larger internal lumen. Veins also have valves that prevent blood flowing backwards
82
what are capillaries?
capillaries are tiny blood vessels that form networks throughout the body's tissues. Blood from the arteries flows into capillaries, where oxygen and nutrients are extracted. The blood then flows back into the veins carrying wastes (such as co2). Capillaries have thin walls- one cell thick- that allow them to perform their function effectively
83
what is the function of capillaries?
to allow food and oxygen to diffuse into cells while waste products diffuse out of cells
84
describe the structure of the heart
consists of 4 chambers. The two at the top are atriums and the two at the bottom are ventricles. The two sides of the heart are separated by a thick muscular wall called the septum. The heart also has several valves positioned where the blood enters to prevent backflow
85
what is the function of the pulmonary circuit?
(right side) pumps blood to the lungs and back to the heart
86
what is the function of the systemic circuit?
(left side) pumps blood to the body and back to the heart
87
what is the function of the atria?
blood enters the heart through the atria before it is pumped into the ventricles
88
what is the function of the ventricles?
the ventricles contract to pump blood to the lungs and around the body
89
what is the function of the valves?
to prevent backflow
90
describe the path of deoxygenated blood
enters via the vena cava into the right atrium, which contracts forcing the blood past the valve into the right ventricle. The right ventricle contracts forcing blood through the pulmonary artery to the lungs
91
describe the path of oxygenated blood
enters via the pulmonary vein into the left atrium, which contracts forcing the blood past the valve into the left ventricle. The left ventricle contracts forcing the blood through the aorta to the body
92
what is meant by the term 'heart rate'?
measures the hearts beats per minute when the ventricles are contracting
93
what is stroke volume?
the volume of blood pumped out the heart by each ventricle in one beat
94
what is cardiac output?
the amount of blood expelled from the heart each minute; it is usually expressed in litres per minute
95
how do you calculate cardiac output?
heart rate x stroke volume
96
what is glucose?
an important energy source needed by all the cells and organs of out bodies; commonly called sugar
97
what is glycogen?
a form of glucose stored in the liver and muscles; it is a form of energy that muscles can use immediately
98
what is digestion?
the process of breaking down food in the gut
99
how is food converted into energy?
during digestion, carbohydrates are broken down into glucose. Some glucose gets stored in the liver. It is released when glucose levels levels in the blood fall too low. Some glucose gets stored in the muscles as glycogen, and the rest is carried to other cells in the body
100
what is aerobic respiration?
respiration that takes place in the presence of oxygen eg. marathon
101
what is the equation for aerobic respiration?
glucose+oxygen= water+carbon dioxide (+energy)
102
what is anaerobic respiration?
the process of converting glucose into energy without oxygen
103
what is the equation for anaerobic respiration?
glucose=lactic acid (+energy)
104
what is oxygen debt?
a temporary oxygen shortage in the body tissues arising from exercise. The amount of oxygen needed to bring the body back to normal
105
why does the body experience oxygen debt after strenuous exercise?
after intense exercise, the body requires more oxygen than is normally needed to remove the lactic acid in the cells. This is essential to bring the body back to its resting state
106
what is excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC)?
the process of taking in the additional oxygen needed by cells in the body to remove the lactic acid created by anaerobic respiration
107
how does oxygen remove lactic acid from the body?
if converts lactic acid into:
- water- which can be used elsewhere in the body or excreted in urine
- carbon dioxide- which is carried to the lungs by the blood and exhaled
- a small amount of glucose- which can be re-used as energy by the muscles
108
how can overall strength and fitness affect recovery time?
the stronger your muscles are, the quicker they will be at absorbing the oxygen needed to remove lactic acid
109
how can genetics affect recovery time?
some people inherit from their parents the ability to recover quickly from exercise
110
how can age affect recovery time?
as you get older, you will generally need a longer recovery time
111
how can gender affect recovery time?
studies have found that physically fit women have a greater resistance to fatigue than their male counterparts
112
what are the immediate effects of exercise on the body?
- increased heart rate
- increased breathing rate
- adrenaline production
113
what happens to the body during exercise?
the body begins to heat up and you start sweating as heat occurs when the muscles are contracting. The skin will become red as a result of blood vessels close to the surface of the skin becoming enlarged. The body sends warm blood to the surface of the skin, where it can be cooled
114
how does sweating help the body to control its temperature during exercise?
the sweat evaporated from the skin, removing the body heat and cooling you down. The water absorbs the heat and takes it away from the body
115
how does fatigue affect fast twitch fibres?
it is caused by lactic acid, which causes pain and stops energy being supplied to the muscle cells
116
how does fatigue affect slow twitch fibres?
if the exercise is low intensity, the fatigue will be caused due to the body running out of glucose
117
what is fatigue?
extreme tiredness resulting from physical exertion
118
what is nausea?
a feeling of sickness with an inclination to vomit
119
what is the cause of nausea?
nausea is a result of blood flow being diverted away during exercise from the stomach to the working muscles; to meet these muscles' need for oxygen and to remove waste products. Digestion in the stomach slows down, and a feeling of sickness can result
120
why may light-headedness occur during exercise?
light-headedness is a result of a change in blood pressure, as when you exercise, your heart works harder to pump more blood to your muscles. This causes your blood vessels to enlarge to allow the stronger flow of blood. When you stop exercising you heart rate reduces, but your blood vessels may take longer to get back to their normal size; hence your blood pressure can drop
121
what is hypertrophy?
the process whereby the muscle walls of the heart get thicker and stronger as a result of training
122
how does training for a period of time affect the heart?
- the muscle walls will become thicker and stronger
- it will increase the size of the heart, making it a more efficient pump
- the heart is able to hold more blood and the muscle walls contract more strongly
- causes an increase in stroke volume
123
what is bradycardia?
a slower than normal heart rate (typically fewer than 60beats/min)
