Anatomy Flashcards
All things are composed of what?
Chemicals consisting atoms
Protons, neutrons, & electrons that make up an atom
Subatomic particles
What are the levels or organization?
1. Atom
* Tiny particles that make up chemicals
* Hydrogen (H), Carbon (C)
2. Molecule
* Particles consisting of atoms joined together
* Water, Glucose
3. Macromolecule
* Large particles consisting of molecules
* DNA, protein
4. Organelle
* Functional part of cell
* Mitochondrion, lysosome
5. Cell
* Basic unit of structure & functions
* Muscle cell, blood cell
6. Tissue
* Layer/mass of cells w/ specific functions
* Adipose tissue
7. Organ
* Group of different tissues w/ a function
* Heart, kidney
8. Organ system
* Group of organs w/ a common function
* Digestive system, resp. system
9. Organism
* Composed of organ systems interacting
* Human
Bodys maintenance of stable internal enviornment
* Requires most of our metabolic energy
Receptors: Provides information
Control center: Tells what particular value should be
Effectors: Cause responses to change to internal enviornment
Homeostasis
Most common homeostatic mech
Effectors return conditions toward normal range
* Maintains balance
* Prevent severe changes in the body
* Long lived
Ex:
* BP
* T
* Glucose (Insulin)
Negative feedback loop
Change/deviatuion is intensified, instead of reversed
* Uncommon homeostatic mech in body
* Increases until normal
* Short lived
Ex:
* Blood clots
* Breastfeeding
* Labor
Positive feedback loop
Includes head, neck, & trunk
* Cranial cavity: Houses brain
* Vertebral cavity: Spinal cavity/cord, backbone/vertebra
* Thoracic cavity: Heart, lungs and pleura
* Abdominopelvic cavity: All of your organs other than your brain, heart, and lungs
Pg 20
Axial portion
What seperates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity?
pg 20
Diaphragm
Seperated from abdominopelvic by diaphragm
* Broad thin muscle
Walls are composed of skin, skeletal muscles, & bones
At rest, muscle is curved upwards into thorax (like dome) ; when contracting during inhalation, muscle curves down on abdominal viscera
Includes:
* L pleural cavity: Line thoracic cavity & cover lungs
* Mediastinum
* R pleural cavity: Line thoracic cavity & cover lungs
* Pericardial cavity: Surrounding heart & covering surface
pg 20 - 21 fig. 1.10, 37
Thoracic cavity
Extends forward to the sternum & backward to the vertebral column
Forms boundry between R & L sides of thoracic cavity
* R & L lungs are on either side
Includes:
* Heart
* Esophagus
* Trachea
* Thymus
pg 20
Mediastinum
Includes upper abdominal & lower pelvic portion
Abdominal cavity:
* Viscera found within (stomach, liver, spleen, gallbladder, kidneys, small/large intestine)
Pelvic cavity:
* Portion enclosed by pelvic bones
* Contains terminal end of large intestine, urinary bladder, & internal reproductive organs
pg 20 - 21 fig. 1.10
Abdominopelvic Cavity
What are 4 other small cavities located w/in the head?
pg 20
Oral cavity: Teeth, tounge
Nasal cavity: Connecting several air-filled sinuses (Fig 7.21 pg 225)
Orbital cavity: Eyes, skeletal muscle, & nerves
Middle ear cavities: Middle ear bone
Line the walls of thoracic & abdominopelvic cavities & folds back to cover organs w/in cavities
* Secrete slippery serous fluid
parieal layer:
* Outer layer
* Lines wall of the thoracic & abdominopevlic cavity
Visceral layer:
* Inner layer
* Covers organs
Examples:
* Visceral & parieal Pleura: Around lungs in thorax
* Visceral & parieal pericardium: Around heart in thorax
* Visceral & parieal Peritoneum: Around abd.pelvi organs
pg 20 & notes
Serous membranes
Distinguish the difference between parietal & visceral peritoneum.
pg 20
Parietal peritoneum: Lines the wall of the abdoninopelvic cavity
Visceral peritoneum: Covers most organs in the abdominopelvic cavity
Major organs include:
* Skin
* Hair
* Nails
* Sweat glands
* Sebaceous glands
Major function:
* Protects tissues
* Regulates body temp
* Suppory sensory receptors
pg 26 Table 1.3
Integumentary system
Major organs include:
* Bones
* Ligaments
* Cartilages
Major function:
* Provide frame work
* Protect soft tissue
* Provide attachements for muscles
* Produce blood cells
* Store Inorganic salts
pg 26 Table 1.3
Skeletal System
Major organs include:
* Muscles
Major function:
* Causes movement
* Maintains posture
* Produce body heat
pg 26 Table 1.3
Muscular system
Major organs include:
* Brain
* Spinal cord
* Nerves
* Sense organs
Major function:
* Detects changes
* Receives & interperates info
* Stimulates muscles & glands
pg 26 Table 1.3
Nervous system
Major organs include: (Glands that secrete hormones)
* Pituitary gland
* Thyroid gland
* Parathyroid gland
* Adrenal gland
* Pineal gland
* Pancreas
* Ovaries/testes
* Thymus
Major function:
* Control metabolic activities of bodies structure
pg 26 Table 1.3
Endocrine system
Major organs include:
* Heart
* Arteries
* Capillaries
* Veins
Major function:
* Move blood through blood vessels
* Transport substances throughout body
pg 26 Table 1.3
Cardiovascular system
Major organs include:
* Lymphiatic vessels
* Lymph nodes
* Thymus
* Spleen
Major function:
* Returne tissue fluid from blood
* Carry certain absorbed food molecules
* Defend body against infection
pg 26 Table 1.3
Lymphatic system
Major organs include:
* Mouth, tounge, teeth
* Salivary glands
* Pharynx
* Esophagus
* Stomach
* Liver
* Gallbladder
* Pancreas
* Small/Large intestine
Major function:
* Recieve/breakdown/absorb food
* Eliminate unabsorbed material
pg 26 Table 1.3
Digestive system
Major organs include:
* Nasal cavity
* Pharynx
* Larynx
* Trachea
* Bronchi
* Lungs
Major function:
* I/O of air
* Gas exchange between air & blood
pg 26 Table 1.3
Resp. system
Major organs include:
* Kidneys
* Ureters
* Bladder
* Urethra
Major function:
* Remove waste from blood
* Maintain water & electrolyte balance
* Store/eliminate urine
pg 26 Table 1.3
Urinary system
Major organs include:
* Male: Scrotum, testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate glands, bulbouretgral glands, urethra, penis
* Female: Ovaries, Uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, vulva
Major function:
* Males: Produce/maintain/transfer sperm
* Female: Produce/maintain oocytes (female sex cells), receive sperm, support development of embryo, birth process
pg 26 Table 1.3
Reproductive system
What are the definitions of the following positions?
Superior
Inferior
Anterior/Ventral
Posterior/Dorsal
Medial
Lateral
Bilateral
Ipsilateral
Contralateral
Proxial
Distal
Superficial
Deep
Superior: Above
Inferior: Below
Anterior/Ventral: Toward front
Posterior/Dorsal: Toward back
Medial: Toward midline
Lateral: Away from midline
Bilateral: Paired structures on both sides
Ipsilateral: Same side
Contralateral: Opposite sides
Proxial: Close to trunk
Distal: Away from trunk
Superficial: Close to body surface
Deep: More internal
Describe how a patient would look in anatomical position?
Standing erect / facing forward
Upper limbs at sides w/ palms facing forward
Define each body section/ plane:
Sagittal section:
Midsagittal /median:
Paraagittal:
Transverse / Horizontal section:
Coronal / frontol section:
Sagittal section: Longituted cut diving body into L & R portions
Midsagittal /median: Divides body into L & R
Parasagittal: Divides body into unequal L & R portions
* Sagittal section lateral to midline
Transverse / Horizontal section: Divides body into superior & inferior parts
Coronal / frontol section: Longitudinal cut that divides body into anterior & porterior portions
What 2 things make up all body fluids?
Water & electrolytes
What are the structure of matter?
Matter: Anything that has weight & takes up space
* Composed of elements
Elements: Compose of chemically identical atoms
Atoms: Smallest particle of an element
* Protons (p+): Positive charge, in nucleus
* Neutrons (n0): No charge / neutral, in nucleus
* Electrons (e-): Negative charge, on outside rings
Nucleus: Central part of atom
* composed of protons & neutrons
* Electrons move around
T/F: Nucleus contains protons
Pg 62
True
T/F: The number of electrons equals the number or neutrons
Pg 62
FALSE: The number of electrons equals the number or Protons
TIP: This means a complete atom has no net charge & is electronically neutral
What are common forms of elements?
What are elements found in the human body?
pg 60
Common forms: (Compounds)
* Aluminum
* Iron
* Silver, gold, copper
* C/H/O2
Found in the human body: (Bulk elements)
* C/H/O2
* Nitrogen
* Sulfur
* Phosphorus
What is the difference between an atomic number & a mass number?
pg 62
Atomic number: Number of protons in nucleus of specific element
* Upper number
Mass number: Number of protons plus neutrons in one atom
* Electrons do not contribute to mass of atom bc they are too light
* Lower number
Example of atomic number:
Hydrogen (H):
* Has 1 proton = Atomic number of 1
Carbon (C):
* Has 6 protons = Atomic number of 6
Electronically charged atom that gains/loses electrons in order to become stable
Ion
Positively charged ion
Formed when atom loses electrons
Attract anions to create a 3D structure
pg 66
Cation
Negatively charges ion
Formed when atoms gains electrons
Attract cations to create a 3D structure
Anion
Strong chemical bonds formed when ions of opposite charge attract
3 steps:
1. Transfer of an electron to form ion
2. Positive & negative ions are attracted to each other
3. Formation of bond
Ionic bond
Chemical bond formed between atoms that shared electrons
* Strong chemical bonds
Examples:
* Hydrogen (H) can combine to create a molecule = (H2)
* Hydrogen molecule (H2) often combines w/ oxygen (O2) molecule = H2O
Covelent bond
What is the maximun number of electrons that can be placed on each of the 3 rings of an electron shell (space encircling neucleus)?
Max: 18
First shell: 2 electrons
Second shell: 8 electrons
Third shell: 8 electrons
Elements present & number of each atom present in the molecule
Examples:
* Hydrogen molecule = H2
* Water molecule = H2O
Molecular formulas
What is the Molecular formula for glucose?
C6H12O6
What is the difference between a molecule & a compound?
Molecule: Particle formed when 2 or more atoms are chemically combined
Compound: Particle formed when 2 or more atoms of different elements are chemically combined
Atoms share electrons equally
Exist between atoms of the same element
Attraction to electrons is based on the size of the nucleus (electronegativity)
* The bigger the nucleus, the more electronegative an atom is
* Atoms of same size have same size nucleus & need equal “pull” of electrons
C & H atoms also form
Examples found in carbon dioxide & most carbon-hydrogen bonds
pg 67
Nonpolar covalent bonds
Electrons are not shared equally
* More electrons are one end of the molecule making that end slightly negative, while the other end is slightly positive
Usually form where hydrogen atoms bond to & oxygen to nitrogen atoms
Example: Water (H2O)
pg 67-68
Polar covalent bonds
Hydrogen bonds are important for what 2 structures?
Protein
Nucleic acids
Form / break bonds between atoms, ions, or molecules
Reactants: Starting materials of reaction
* The atom, ion, or molecule
Products: Substances formed at the end of reactions
pg 68
Chemical reaction
What are the 2 types of chemical reactions and how are they different?
pg 68-69
Synthesis reaction:
* 2 or more atoms, ions, or molecules formed to make a more complex structure
* Particularly important in growth of body parts & repair worn/damaged tissue
* Symbolized : A+B = AB
Decomposition reaction:
* Chemical bonds broken to form simpler atoms, ions, or molecules
* Digests nutrient molecules into smaller molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream of the small intestines
* Symbolized : AB = A+B
what are the 3 types of electolytes & their characteristics?
Acid: Substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+)
* Carbonic acid
* Hydrochloric acid
* Acetic acid
* Phosphoric acid
Base: Substance that releases ions that can combine w/ hydrogen ions
* Sodium hydroxied
* Potassium hydroxide
* Magnesium hydroxide
* Sodium bicarb (HCO3)
Salt: Substance formed by the reaction between an acid & a base
* Sodium chloride
* Aluminum chloride
* Magnesium sulfate
A system that tracts the number of decimal places in a hydrogen ion concentration
* Extends from 0-14
As hydrogen ions increase, the pH decreases
Blood is normally slightly more alkaline
Illness can result when pH chnges
Normal: 7.35-7.45
Acidic/ Acidosis: < 7.35
* Makes one feel disoriented & fatigued
* Breathing may become difficult
* Can result from diarrhea, severe vomiting, diabetes, lung & kidney disease
Alkalemia/ Alkalosis: > 7.45
* Makes one feel agitated & dizzy
* Caused by breathing rapidly at high altitudes, too many antiacids, high fever, anxiety, mild-mod vomiting
pg 70-71
pH scale
Chemical systems that resist pH change
Has the ability to maintain pH by combining w/ hydrogen ions when they are in excess or donating hydrogen
Common systemin blood: Carbonic acid-bicarbonate system
pg 71
Buffer
How does the hydrogen ion concentrate compare between a solution as pH 6.4 & a solution of pH 8.4?
The solution 6.4 has 100x the hydrogen ion concetration of a solution at pH 8.4
What are 2 general types of chemicals, including those that take part in metabolism (cell energy reaction)?
pg 71
Organic
Inorganic
Compounds that have carbon & hydrogen
Have long chain/ring structures that can form because of carbon atoms ability to form 4 covalent bonds
Many organic compouds dissolve in water (polar)
* Most that dissolve in water do not release ions (AKA nonelectrolytes)
Most dissolve in organic liquids (ether/alcohol) (Nonpolar)
pg 71
Organic compounds
What are examples of organic compounds?
pg 84
Carbs
* Provide main energy supply built of simple sugars
Proteins
* Serve as structural materials, energy source, hormones, cell surface receptors, antibodies, & enzymes that speed chemical reactions w/o being consume
Lipids
* Triglycerides (fats), phospholipids, & steroids
Nucleic acids
* The instructions that control activities, & direct protein synthesis
Provide main energy supply built of simple sugars
* Diet 60% carbs, 30% fat,10% protein
* Water soluable
Contain hydrogen (H), carbon (C), & oxygen (O)
* Ratio H to O is 2:1 (C6H12O6 = glucose)
*
Size classification:
* Monosaccharides: Single sugars - Glucose, Fructose
* Disaccharides: Double sugars - Sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar)
* Polysaccharides: Complex sugars (3+) - Starch, glycogen, cellulose (humans cannot digest - considered dietary fiber)
* Abundant in plants
Carbs
(Organic compound)
Serve as structural materials, energy source, hormones, cell surface receptors/ wound healing, antibodies, & enzymes that speed chemical reactions w/o being consume
* Use as last resort
Building blocks = Amino acids
* Held together w/ peptide bonds
3D structure (conformations), primary source is amino acid sequence
* Can be Denaturea (changes in 3D shape by breaking bonds - caused by heat/ extreme pH)
Proteins
(Organic compound)
Important component of cell membranes w/ several functions
* Supply energy used to build cell parts
* Triglycerides (fats - most abundant), phospholipids, & steroids
* Insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents
Building blocks of triglycerides: 1 Glycerol, & 3 fatty acids
* Used for cellular energy (more engery per g than carbs)
* Contains C, H, & O bu has less O than carbs
Building blocks of phospholipids: 1 Glycerol, 2 fatty acids, Phosphate group
* Similar to triglycerides
Steroids include 4 rings of carbon atoms & are synthesized in body from cholesterol
* Component of cell membrane
* Used to synthosize the adrenal & sex hormone
Lipids
(Organic compound)
Carry genetic code (DNA) & direct protein synthesis (RNA)
Encode amino acid sequence of protein
Building blocks: Nucleotides
* Consists of sugars (S), phosphate group (P), & organic bse (B)
2 types:
* DNA: Store information used to construct proteins
* RNA: Help body synthesize proteins
Nucleic acids
(Organic compound)
What is the difference between Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) & Ribonucleic acid (RNA)?
pg 84
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA):
* Store genetic code -replicated w/ an exact copy of original cells DNA
* Contains sugar deoxyribose
* Composed of nucleotides
* Double helix - (ATCGAT)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA):
* Interacts w/ DNA to conduct protein synthesis
* Contains sugar ribose
* Composed of nucleotides
* Single stranded - (AUCGAU)
Do not contain hydrogen (H) & carbon (C)
Usually dissolve in water & dissociate forming ions (Electrolytes)
Common compound substances sfound in the cell are water (H2O), oxygen (O2), carbon dioxied (CO2), & inorganic salts (HCO3-, CL-, K+, ect)
Inorganic compound
Most abundant compound in living material
Medium for metabolic reactions
Important role for transportation
* Important soluvent (dissolves things)
* Polar water molecules seperate in soluvent
Can absorb & transport heat
Water
(Inorganic compound)
Used by organelles to release energy from nutrients in order to drive cells metabolic activities
* Necessary for survival
Blood carries Bicarb (HCO3-) to resp. organs
Oxygen
(Inorganic compound)
When is carbon dioxied released?
How is carbon dioxied removed
Released during metabolic reactions
Removed through exhalation
What is the difference between saturated & unsaturated fats?
Saturated fats:
* Have* single carbon-carbon bond*
* Most are solid at room temp
* Most are animal orgin
* Every H has a C
* Can raise LDL
* Ex: Beef, pork, eggs, coconut oil, ect
Unsaturated fats:
* Have 1+ carbon-carbon double bond
* Most are liquid at room temp
* Most are plant orgin
* Not every H has a C
* Examples: Vegetable oils, nuts, fish, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated
