Anatomy Flashcards
What are the 7 different endocrine glands in the body?
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid gland (x4)
Pancreas
Adrenal gland (x2)
Ovaries/Testicles
What hormones are produced by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
ADH (also called vasopressin)
Oxytocin
What is the mid-line sulcus called, in which the pituitary fossa is found?
Sella turcica
It is located at the base of the sphenoid bone.
Which structure lies immediately superior to the pituitary gland?
Optic chiasm
Which visual defect is associated with a pituitary tumor?
Bitemporal hemianopia
Which surgical approaches exist for the removal of a pituitary gland pathology?
Transsphenoidal approach (through the nasal cavity and frontal sphenoid sinus)
Transcranial approach (through the frontal bone, passing inferior to the frontal lobe).
What must be fractured to allow the transsphenoidal approach?
Nasal septum
Roof and floor of the sphenoid sinuses
What is the tentorium cerebelli?
A tough sheet of dura mater which tents over the cerebellum as it lies in the posterior cranial fossa.
What is the diaphragma sellae?
A tough sheet of dura mater which provides a roof to the pituitary fossa.
What muscle separates the two (anterior and posterior) triangles of the neck?
Sternocleidomastoid
Where are the 3 attachment points of the sternocleidomastoid?
Manubrium of the sternum (inferior)
Medial end of the clavicle (inferior)
Mastoid process of the temporal bone (superior)
What are the layers of neck fascia (outermost first)?
Skin
Superficial fascia
Investing fascia
Prevertebral fascia
Carotid sheaths
Pretracheal fascia
What are contained within the carotid sheaths?
Common carotid artery
Vagus nerve
Internal jugular vein
Deep cervical lymph nodes
What are the most superficial muscles of the neck?
Platysma muscles
What is a goitre?
An enlarged thyroid gland
How is blood received in the thyroid gland?
Superiorly, through the superior thyroid artery (a branch of the external carotid artery)
Inferiorly, through the inferior thyroid artery (a branch of the subclavian artery)
What is the first branch of the subclavian artery?
Internal thoracic artery
Injury to which nerves will cause paralysis of the vocal cords?
Recurrent laryngeal nerves (bilaterally).
Will cause aphonia and an inability to close the rima glottidis.
How may unilateral recurrent laryngeal nerve injury present?
Hoarse voice or a weak voice/cough.
Which metabolic processes are halted by the presence of insulin?
Gluconeogenesis
Lipolysis
What are risk factors for developing insulin resistance?
Obesity
Genetics
PCOS
Gestational diabetes
Hypertension
Smoking
What is the role of inflammation in insulin resistance?
Obesity stimulates the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines in adipose cells.
Which range of HbA1c is defined as pre-diabetes?
42-48mmol/mol
How should pre-diabetes be treated?
BMI reduction and glucose control.
Which hormone stimulates the liver to release glucose?
Glucagon
What is the incretin effect?
The difference in insulin secretion when glucose (of the SAME concentration) is given via oral versus intravenous routes.
It means that, when given orally, glucose causes twice the response of an intravenous administration. This is due to incretin hormones.
What is GLP-1?
The hormone released by L cells in the GI tract which causes the incretin effect. It makes extra insulin be released when blood glucose is sufficiently abundant (>5.5 mmol/L).
At which vertebral levels is the thyroid gland located?
C5-T1
What forms if the thyroglossal duct fails to seal up correctly?
Thyroglossal cyst
Where are thyroglossal cysts found?
At the midline - they move with the tongue
How many parathyroid glands are there?
4 - located to the posterior of the thyroid.
What is the basic functional of the thyroid gland?
Follicle
Which type of thyroid cells produce calcitonin?
Parafollicular cells
Which drugs target the attachment of iodine to tyrosine as a means of reducing hyperthyroidism?
Carbimazole
Propylthiouracil
Which hormone represents 90% of the thyroid’s hormonal output?
T4
Which organs convert T4 to T3?
Liver and kidneys
This is useful as T3 is much more potent, thus the biologically active form.
What metabolic processes are accelerated by the presence of thyroid hormones?
Lipolysis
Glycogenolysis
Gluconeogenesis
What metabolic processes are slowed in the presence of thyroid hormones?
Glycogenesis
Lipogenesis
The aim of thyroid hormones is to increase the available glucose for cellular respiration.
What are typical symptoms of hyperthyroidism?
Reduced metabolic rate
Slow pulse
Fatigue
Lethargy
Cold intolerance
Tendency to gain weight
What are typical symptoms of hyperthyroidism?
Increased metabolic rate
Fast pulse
Nervousness
Sweating
Emotional lability
Insomnia
Heat intolerance
Weight loss
