An Introduction to human cognition

Question 1

Cognitive Psychology:Explain the information processing approach

Answer 1

the assumption human processing is similar to computers

Question 2

Cognitive Psychology:Explain the bottom-up serial processing

Answer 2

processing is directly influenced by environmental stimuli (serial=1 process at a time) and is emphasised

Question 3

Cognitive Psychology:Explain the Top-Down processing

Answer 3

processing is influenced by knowledge and expectations (is de-emphasised)

Question 4

What are the strengths of cognitive psychology?

Answer 4

-it’s the first systematic approach
-it led to several theories/tasks adopted by other approaches
-flexible and can be applied to any aspect of cognition
-more efficient + less likely to have errors made

Question 5

What are the limitations of cognitive psychology?

Answer 5

-some cognitive tasks impure and lack ecological validity
-indirect evidence of underlying processes
-vague hard to test theories
-findings often paradigm specific
-lack of an overarching theoretical framework

Question 6

Define cognitive neuropsychology

Answer 6

the evaluation of cognitive performance in brain-damaged patients which can provide direct evidence of brain-cognition linkages. (but can’t fully predict what an individual can do)

Question 7

What are the key assumptions of cognitive neuropsychology?

Answer 7

1.functional modularity
2.anatomical modularity
3.universality assumption
4.subtractivity

Question 8

Define functional modularity

Answer 8

the independent processing units which exhibit domain specificity (response to one class of stimuli only)

Question 9

Define anatomical modularity

Answer 9

each cognitive module is located in a specific brain region

Question 10

Define universality assumption

Answer 10

the organisation of cognitive functions are similar across all individuals

Question 11

Define subtractivity

Answer 11

brain damage only disrupts modules or connections between them and new modules are NOT developed to compensate in patients

Question 12

How does cognitive neuropsychology use correlational evidence?

Answer 12

via associations which occur when a patient is impaired on both tasks and can often be used to identify syndromes(where certain sets of symptoms or impairments are found)

Question 13

How does Cognitive neuropsychology use single case studies?

Answer 13

-single patient used
-are they an outlier or representative?
-useful for rare forms of brain damage

Question 14

How does Cognitive neuropsychology use case-series studies?

Answer 14

-studies several patients with similar symptoms/damage
-much richer data
-can identify extent of variation across patients

Question 15

Define network organisation in cognitive neuroscience

Answer 15

the human brain has complex topology with moderate cost control + efficiency

Question 16

Define cognitive neuroscience

Answer 16

the study of how the brain enables the mind biologically and cognitively

Question 17

Explain the principle of cost-control and efficiency

Answer 17

CC-few long distance connections
E-the ability to integrate information across the brain

Question 18

Explain the technique of single-unit recording

Answer 18

a micro electrode is inserted into the brain and records activity from a single neuron.

Question 19

Give an advantage of single-unit recordings

Answer 19

has high temporal and spatial resolution

Question 20

Give three disadvantages of single-unit recordings

Answer 20

-highly invasive and requires surgery which could damage the cells across the electrodes path
-expensive
-too narrow to assess the most higher cognitive processes

Question 21

What is the technique used for ERPs?

Answer 21

-most common is the electrodes on the scalp which captures changes in potential allowing where/when the brain is active (300ms)

Question 22

What are the advantages of ERPs?

Answer 22

-Electrical activity on scalp is recorded during repeated events where brain waves are segmented and then averaged
-good temporal resolution
-provides a detailed continous record of brain activity

Question 23

What are the disadvantages of ERPs?

Answer 23

-limited spatial resolution as skull/brain tissue distorts electrical fields
-numerous trials required
-hard to study complex cognition as processes/strategies change over trials

Question 24

Explain the technique used PET scans

Answer 24

water containing a radioactive tracer emits positrons where water rushes to an active brain region and the scanning device measures the positrons emitted.

Question 25

Give an advantage of PET scans

Answer 25

spatial is reasonable (5-10mm)

Question 26

Give 2 disadvantages of PET scans

Answer 26

-poor temporal resolution as it detects regional blood flow changes on the order of 30-60s -invasive as introduction of radioactive substances has limited its frequency of usage

Question 27

Explain the technique used in fMRI

Answer 27

non-invasive measure of brain activity (where it's happening whereas EEG/ERP is when it's happening) and in efMRI(event-related fMRI) patterns of brain activity associated with specific events are compared. (doesn’t measure neural activity but correlator activity i.e. the response of blood to magnetic fields spotting neurons location where oxygen is delivered)

Question 28

Give an advantage of fMRI scans

Answer 28

good spatial resolution (approx 1mm)

Question 29

Give 5 disadvantages of fMRI scans

Answer 29

-expensive -poor temporal resolution (2-3s) -indirect measure of brain activity -distortions in some brain regions -constraints on stimuli that can be presented

Question 30

Explain the technique used in TMS

Answer 30

a brief pulse is emitted by a coil next to the skull where magnetic field disrupts the brain activity/neurons in the underlying cortex to determine whether certain brain areas responsible for certain tasks prevented=yes

Question 31

Give 5 limitations of TMS

Answer 31

-could cause visual hallucinations -TMS effects complex and not fully understood -it can enhance performance due to compensatory flexibility recruiting other brain areas -brain areas not directly targeted by TMS may also be affected -limited to brain areas lying beneath the skull + with overlying muscle

Question 32

Give an advantage of TMS

Answer 32

one of the techniques where you can prove causality (better scientifically wise)

Question 33

Give 5 strengths of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 33

-combo of techniques gives good spatial/temporal resolution -provides rich info to add to behavioural measures -helped to resolve many theoretical controversies -meta-analysis 10,000+ have clarified brain-cognition relationships -limitations of functional specialisation assumption identified

Question 34

Explain the MEG technique

Answer 34

uses a superconducting quantum interference device aka SQUID and measures the magnetic fields produced by brain activity

Question 35

Give an advantage of MEG technique

Answer 35

good spatial/temporal resolution

Question 36

Give 3 limitations of MEG

Answer 36

-very expensive -requires patients to be in a potential uncomfortable body position for long periods of time -technology and analysis relatively new and complicated

Question 37

Give 6 limitations of Cognitive neuroscience

Answer 37

-deterministic -over-interpreted findings (not necessarily direct evidence to cognitive processes) -"neuroenchantment" (exaggerated respect for findings in CN) -underpowered studies -false reported positive studies -difficulty relating brain activation to cognitive processes

Question 38

Explain how visual information is processed

Answer 38

Visual information forwarded primarily to visual areas located in the back of the brain (visual areas) to then starts being processed -destruction of neurons in visual areas=blindness

Question 39

what are some neurons/areas of the cortex responsive too?

Answer 39

neurons=lines (thought to store visual shapes of objects) cortex=objects e.g. buildings,faces

Question 40

How do we know the shape of objects?

Answer 40

-perception/knowledge is stored in memory -recognising the object is matching what we see with what we know so we detect visual patterns to structure a visual scene

Question 41

Why can't we change what we see?

Answer 41

we automatically detect patterns AND because of the few ms needed to create this but partly an illusion BUT as a result pattern recognition might make people believe things are wrong

Question 42

How can we get differing experiences?

Answer 42

we pay attention to different things in a different state/mindset

Question 43

Define biased perception

Answer 43

perceptual info is used to create knowledge used to interpret the world so perception/knowledge is not perfect but we still use this biased knowledge to interpret reality.

Question 44

What are the conclusions?

Answer 44

■ Cognitive psychology uses scientific methods to create theories explaining human behaviour ■ Theories should be tested to be proven valid ■ Our interpretation of reality depends upon what we know ■ We can see things that do not exist! ■ We must have an objective method to develop theories of the human mind ■ Cognitive psychology provides a mechanistic approach to explaining human behaviour