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Year 1 Biological Psychology > Amy Romijn > Flashcards

Amy Romijn Flashcards

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1
Q

What are emotions?

A

Motivated state consisting of:

  • Physical arousal
  • Expressive behaviours
  • Cognitive/conscious experience
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2
Q

What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?

A

CNS - includes brain and spinal cord, processes information

PNS - includes the nerves connecting the CNS to muscles and organs

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3
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system?

A
  • Contains the sensory (afferent) branch and the motor (efferent) branch
  • Sensory info comes into our brains
  • Motor branch Info that comes from the brain and to the body
  • Motor branch contains the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system
  • Somatic does conscious control
  • Autonomic does unconscious control
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4
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system?

A
  • Controls unconscious movement (heartbeats)
  • Contains the parasympathetic and sympathetic systems
  • Parasympathetic and sympathetic innervate same visceral structures
  • Sympathetic is mostly in the thoracic and lumbar system
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5
Q

What does the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems do

A
  • Sympathetic mobilises the body during extreme situations (fight or flight)
  • Parasympathetic controls routine maintenance functions (rest and digest)
  • Both act in balance to keep the body’s systems stable and balanced despite outside conditions –> homeostasis
  • PNS has an inhibitory effect on the SNS
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6
Q

What neurotransmitter is used by the sympathetic division?

A
  • Norepinephrine (aka noradrenaline)
  • Uses acetylcholine at some synapses but norepinephrine is released onto the target organ
  • Has a second pathway, via the adrenal gland which norepinephrine and epinephrine into the blood stream (slower acting - sympathomedullary)
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7
Q

What neurotransmitter is used by the parasympathetic division

A
  • Acetylcholine

- Uses it as every synapse and is released onto the target organ

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8
Q

What is the adrenal medulla?

A
  • Major organ of the sympathetic nervous system (inside part of the adrenal gland)
  • Releases adrenaline (aka epinephrine) and noradrenaline (aka norepinephrine) into the blood stream
  • These hormones are then picked up by receptors in the organs
  • Both adrenaline and noradrenaline have similar effects on the body, though act on slightly different receptors
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9
Q

What controls the autonomic nervous system?

A
  • Hypothalamus is the key brain site for integration of multiple biological systems to maintain homeostasis
  • Hypothalamus projects to the medulla oblongata where the cells that drive the autonomic systems are located
  • Medulla is located in the lower half of the brain stem and contains the cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and vasomotor centres
  • Deals with the autonomic functions of breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
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10
Q

What are somatic reflexes

A

Responses involving skeletal muscle e.g. knee jerk/blinking

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11
Q

What are visceral reflexes

A

Unconscious, automatic, stereotyped responses to stimulation involving visceral receptors and effectors

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12
Q

Visceral reflex arc (pathway)

A
  1. Receptors transmit via
  2. afferent neurons to the
  3. interneurons in the CNS
  4. efferent neurons transmit away from the CNS to the
  5. effectors which make adjustments
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13
Q

Visceral reflex arc: Blood pressure

A
  1. high blood pressure detected by arterial stretch receptors
  2. afferent neuron carries signal to CNS
  3. efferent signal travel to the heart
  4. Heart slows reducing bloody pressure

Homeostatic negative feedback loop

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14
Q

What does the enteric nervous system contain

A
  • Glial cells
  • 500 million neurons
  • 40 neurotransmitters identified
  • Produces 50% of all dopamine
  • Produces 95% of all serotonin
  • Barrier restricts blood flow to second brain
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15
Q

What is the enteric nervous system

A
  • Third branch of the autonomic nervous system
  • In the gut
  • ‘Second brain’
  • Very new
  • Only just beginning to understand the interactions between the two brains
  • Promising area - plaques or tangles found in brains of people with Alzheimer’s are present in neurons in their guts too
  • Potential to use gut biopsies to make early diagnoses, as well as to monitor response to treatments
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16
Q

How do we measure emotion?

A

Psychological aspects of emotion allows researchers to objectively measure emotion

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17
Q

Emotion according to Darwin: Anger

A
  • Frowning

- Protect eyes in anticipation of attack

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18
Q

Emotion according to Darwin: Surprise

A
  • Eyebrows raised
  • Mouth open
  • Open the eyes wide to facilitate sight
  • Draw in air quickly to put the body in a state of readiness
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19
Q

Emotion according to Darwin: Disgust

A
  • Raised upper lip
  • Expelling offensive matter from the mouth
  • Accompanying nose and eye wrinkles (by products)
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20
Q

Emotion according to Darwin: Fear

A
  • Eyebrows raised
  • Mouth open
  • More problematic for Darwin
  • Movements similar to surprise but more tense
  • Potential conflict between readiness and protection
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21
Q

Cross-cultural emotion studies: Paul Ekman

A
  • Psychologist
  • Pioneer in the study of emotions and their relation to facial expressions
  • Inspired by Darwin
  • Conducted several universality studies which provided the first methodologically sound evidence for Darwin’s arguments on emotion
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22
Q

Cross-cultural emotion studies: Ekman et al. (1972)

A
  • Isolated South Fore tribe in New Guinea
  • Preliterate
  • Told stories to provoke an emotional response (e.g. your friend has come to see you, your child has died, you are angry and about to fight)
  • Showed 3 faces of Westeners
  • Asked to choose the most relevant expression

Results:

  • Happy: 90% correct
  • Sad, angry, disgust: 68-89% correct
  • Fear and surprise were not discriminated at levels exceeding chance
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23
Q

Six basic emotions (Ekman, 1984)

A
  • 6 primary emotions
  • These evolved through their survival benefits (each unique in its cause and expression)
  • Emotions occur automatically and rapidly
  • Short in duration (different from moods)
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24
Q

Methodological issues with Ekman’s research

A
  • Forced choice paradigms can inflate accuracy
  • Sorenson (1976) conducted a similar study that allowed for open ended responses
  • Anger, fear and happiness showed a high degree of accuracy
  • Sad face was often called angry
  • Inconsistent results for disgust and surprise
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25
Q

Two system emotional approach

A
  • Two types of facial expression with different control systems

Spontaneous expression:

  • Sub-cortical system
  • Bottom-up ‘reflexive’ expression
  • Universal and biologically determined

Those under voluntary control:

  • Cortical system
  • Mediates voluntary system (display rules)
  • Top-down ‘contrived’ expression
  • Shaped by environmental conditions
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26
Q

Theories of emotion: James-Lange theory (1884-1885)

A
  • A stimulus leads to bodily arousal first, which is then interpreted as an emotion
  • No body = no emotion
  • Critique = sometimes there is no distinct physiological effect that maps onto each emotion we have
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27
Q

Theories of emotion: Cannon-Bard theory

A
  • A stimulus leads to activity in the brain which then sends signals to arouse the body and interpret the emotion at the same time
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28
Q

What is interoception

A
  • Ability to perceive and integrate physiological signals from within the body
  • Key component in the generation of affective states
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29
Q

What is alexithymia?

A
  • Difficulty in experiencing, expressing and describing emotional responses
  • Difficulty in describing feelings to others
  • High prevalence in autism
  • Tend to have poor interoception
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30
Q

What is the amygdala?

A
  • Major focus of emotion research in recent years
  • Connections to thalamus, hypothalamus and other structures
  • Major role in emotions especially fear
  • Structure responsible for the rapid processing of sensory information that may be dangerous
  • Because it does not require cortical input (conscious processing) the response is fast but not always that accurate
  • Unconscious automatic response
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31
Q

Neurobiology of fear conditioning: Joseph LeDoux

A

Work has focused on brain mechanisms mediating fear conditioning. Key findings include :

  • Legions to amygdala prevent fear conditioning
  • Legions to thalamus (sensory relay) prevent conditioning
  • Emotional processing can be preconscious and precognitive
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32
Q

Two routes of fear processing: Short route

A
  • Immediate
  • Less accurate
  • Unconscious
  • What’s that???

emotional stimulus –> sensory thalamus –> amygdala –> emotional response

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33
Q

Two routes of fear processing: Long route

A
  • Slower
  • More accurate response
  • Conscious
  • Draws on contextual information

emotional stimulus –> sensory thalamus –> sensory cortex –> amygdala –> emotional response

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34
Q

Why do we not all react the same to emotion?

A
  • The strength of the physiological arousal determines the intensity of the emotional experience
  • It is interpretation which determines which particular emotion is experienced
35
Q

Cognitive appraisal: Lazarus (1975)

A
  • Appraisal theory of emotion

stressful event –> threat (yikes this is beyond me) –> panic, freeze up

stressful event –> challenge (I’ve got to apply all I know) –> aroused, focused

36
Q

Where do cognitive appraisals take place?

A

Frontal cortex:

  • Receives sensory input
  • Has connections to the limbic system
  • Integrates information and plans how to respond
37
Q

Case Study: Phineas Gage (1860) –> evidence for the frontal lobe being the place where cognitive appraisals take place

A
  • Dynamite worker who used a steel rod to pack a dynamite charge
  • Explosion shot the rod into his cheek, through his brain and out the top of his head
  • He survived
  • The equilibrium between his intellectual faculties and animal propensities seemed to have been destroyed
  • Symptoms were reduction of inhibition, loss of self-control, indifference to consequence of actions etc
38
Q

What is the frontal cortex?

A
  • Communicates with the limbic system
  • Connected directly to amygdala
  • Can alter activity in the amygdala
  • Can alter our emotional responses
39
Q

What is stress?

A
  • A mismatch between perceived demands and the ability to cope
  • 77% of people experience physical symptoms caused by stress
  • 73% of people experience psychological symptoms caused by stress
40
Q

Stress negative feedback loop (HPA axis)

A
  1. Hypothalamus releases corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
  2. Detected by the anterior pituitary gland which then releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
  3. This is then detected by the adrenal cortex
  4. Adrenal cortex releases cortisol
41
Q

What stress hormones are released when the adrenal medulla is activated?

A
  • Catecholamines
  • E.g. arenaline (epinephrine)
  • E.g. noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
42
Q

What stress hormones are activated when the adrenal cortes is stimulated

A
  • Corticosteroids

- E.g. cortisol

43
Q

Short term effects of cortisol

A
  • Similar to adrenaline but weaker
  • Increases arousal
  • Mobilises energy resources
  • Increase blood glucose, amino acids, fatty acids
  • Controls inflammation
44
Q

Longer term effects of cortisol

A
  • Can have negative effects
  • Sleep deprivation
  • Reduced immune function
  • High blood pressure
  • Heart disease
  • Weight gain
  • Depressed mood
  • Fatigue
45
Q

What is general adaptation syndrome?

A
  • Hans Selye
  • An explanation
    for what happens under conditions of chronic stress
46
Q

General adaptation syndrome: Alarm stage

A

Function of this stage is to mobilise the body’s resources (fight or flight)

Adrenaline is secreted into the blood stream

Body reactions:

  • Pupils dilate
  • Hearing sharpens
  • Saliva decreases
  • Heart rate increases
  • Blood pressure increases
  • Digestion slows
  • Muscles tighten
47
Q

General adaptation syndrome: Resistance stage

A

Body adapts to the stressors and attempts to regain internal balance while staying heightened

Body is no longer in fight or flight but ‘red alert’

Adrenal secretion slows (PNS)

Body reactions:

  • Hearing is normal
  • Saliva increases
  • Heart rate goes down
  • Blood pressure goes down
  • Muscles relax

Blood glucose levels remain high, cortisol and adrenaline continue to circulate at elevated levels, but outward appearance of organism. seems normal

48
Q

General adaptation syndrome: Exhaustion stage.

A
  • True state of exhaustion occurs when the body’s ability to respond is exhausted such that recovery and resistance are no longer possible
  • If stress continues, then death may occur
  • Wear and tear on the body increase
  • Psychophysiological illness may occur
49
Q

General adaptation syndrome: Criticisms

A
  • Research based on animal studies which tend to ‘sit there and take it’
  • Humans react, we think, appraise
  • Humans respond to stress with social and nurturing behaviour (sex differences and personality)
  • Selye assumed physiological response is same regardless of the stressor, is this true?
50
Q

Effect of PTSD on the amygdala

A

Hyperactive

51
Q

Effect of PTSD on the pre-frontal cortex

A

Reduced activation

52
Q

Brain damage in psychopaths

A
  • Psychopaths often have structural and functional impairments to the connections between emotional and decision-making (conscious) brain areas (e.g. amygdala and PFC)
  • fMRI shows reduced connectivity in psychopaths
  • 25% of men on death row have a history of concussion to frontal lobes
53
Q

What does oxytocin do?

A
  • Receptors can be found in several key areas of the brain, including the amygdala
  • Behavioural effects include increased feelings of trust, empathy, pair-bonding
  • Secreted from the pituitary gland and has effects on body related to lactation, birthing and weaning
  • Oxytocin cannot re-enter the brain because of blood brain barrier
  • Second pathway where oxytocin is released into the brain from the hypothalamus
54
Q

What is chemotransduction?

A
  • Is a form of sensory transduction
  • Sensory stimulus is converted from one form to another (e.g. movement of a hair –> action potential) but for chemicals
  • Allows for the detection of chemicals in the environment
  • Chemicals activate chemoreceptors that transiently alter membrane potential of cell
  • Applies to taste (gustation) and smell (olfaction)
55
Q

What is olfaction

A

Our sense of smell

56
Q

How do we sense an odour?

A
  • Chemical substances carried in the air are dissolved in fluid (mucus in the nose)
  • Humans can distinguish over 10,000 odours by employing around 40 million smell receptors
  • Dogs have 100 million smell receptors
  • Olfaction is our most basic and primitive sense
  • It is present at birth in most mammals
  • New born babies can tell the difference between the breast milk of their mothers and other women through smell
57
Q

Olfactory pathway

A
  • Olfactory receptors (olfactory cilia) are located in the upper portion of the nasal passages
  • As a key slips into a lock –> odour molecules slip into the receptors
  • Some odours trigger a combination of receptors
  • Olfaction is the only sense that is not routed through the thalamus (suggests that smell evolved earlier than other senses)
  • Projects directly to the piriform cortex and limbic area
  • Why smells can bring back strong emotional memories known as the Proust Phenomenon

Olfactory bulb –> piriform cortex –> orbitofrontal cortex

58
Q

What are pheromones?

A
  • A secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species (communication)
  • Androstenone is a steroid found in boar’s saliva
  • First mammalian pheromone to be identified
  • When sniffed by a female pig who is in heat, results in the female assuming the mating stance
  • Used by pig farmers to test sows for timing of artificial insemination
59
Q

How do animals detect pheromones?

A
  • Use the vomeronasal organ (VNO)
  • At the base of the nose
  • Info is then sent to a subsidiary part of the olfactory bulb before being passed on primarily to the amygdala
60
Q

What are major histocompatibility complex molecules

A
  • Proteins in a cell which help the immune system recognise foreign molecules - determined by thousands of different alleles on Chromosome 6
  • Every human possesses a different set
  • Ideally we want to mate with someone who is very different to us because we need to produce offspring with a good varied immune system
61
Q

Structure of the tongue

A
  • On the surface there are protrusions with different shapes (ridges, pimples, mushrooms)
  • Each papilla is a collection of 100-200 taste buds
62
Q

Structure of taste buds

A
  • Each taste bud has 50-100 taste receptor cells with antenna like hairs that sense food molecules
63
Q

What is the coding of taste?

A
  • Each receptor cell has a different combination of ion channels on it
  • Each cell is maximally responsive to a specific ‘taste’
  • Responses of the different cells are combined together using population coding (one afferent axon gets input from many different taste receptor cells)
  • Cortex discerns what the overall pattern of activation is and decides you ate chocolate
64
Q

Gustatory pathway

A

Taste buds –> afferent axons –> medulla oblongata –> thalamus –> gustatory cortex (in insula)

  • Medulla oblongata houses the centres for respiration and autonomic responses
  • Also houses centres for basic reflexes like swallowing and vomiting
  • Makes sense for the first synapse in the afferent taste pathway to occur in the medulla oblongata
65
Q

What can flavour perception be affected by?

A
  • Sound
  • Texture
  • Temperature
  • Sight
  • Smell
  • Colour
  • Expectations
66
Q

Parts of the central nervous system that are involved in motor control

A
  • Motor areas of the cerebral cortex
  • Pathways in spinal cord
  • Basal ganglia
  • Cerebellum
67
Q

Why do we need to send information through the basal ganglia?

A
  • Acts as a holder of an ‘action plan’ which is awaiting being put into action
  • By stimulating and inhibiting the motor cortex the basal ganglia helps in initiating the correct ‘action plan’
68
Q

What is hypokinesia

A

Too much inhibition by basal ganglia

69
Q

What is hyperkinesia

A

Too much excitation by basal ganglia

70
Q

What is Parkinson’s disease

A
  • Neurodegenerative disease
  • Most common in elderly but can occur at any age
  • Most common movement disorder affecting 1-2% of the general population over 65 years
  • Second most common neuro-degenerative disorder after Alzheimer’s
71
Q

Parkinson’s disease 3 main symptoms

A
  1. Resting tremor
  2. Bradykinesia
  3. Muscle rigidity

Caused by too much inhibition by the basal ganglia

72
Q

What causes Parkinson’s disease?

A
  • Caused by degeneration of certain neurons of the basal ganglia (substantia nigra)
  • Neurotransmitter is dopamine
73
Q

Treatment for Parkinson’s disease

A
  • Give L-DOPA (precursor to dopamine)

- L-DOBA can pass through the blood brain barrier

74
Q

What is Huntington’s chorea

A
  • Autosomal dominant disorder
  • Hyperkinesia
  • Abnormal movements
  • Spontaneous uncontrollable and jerky movements
  • Profound loss of neurons in the basal ganglia
75
Q

How is Huntington’s chorea characterised?

A
  • Characterised as degeneration of the cerebral cortex and the basal ganglia
  • Loss of neurons in the striatum
  • Severe striatal atrophy with resulting enlargement of ventricles
76
Q

What is the cerebellum?

A
  • Needed to precisely regulate the sequence and duration of the tiniest movements
  • Participates in fine tuning and co-ordination of movements produced elsewhere in the brain
77
Q

Proprioceptive pathway

A
  • Cerebellum receives sensory input from muscles, tendons, and ligaments (in addition to other sensory modalities)
  • Sends info to the motor cortex so that ongoing adjustments can be made
78
Q

What are the proprioceptors?

A
  • Muscle spindle
  • Golgi tendon organ
  • Joint receptor

Allow us to monitor the degree of stretch in our muscles

79
Q

What is ataxia

A
  • A group of disorders that affect coordination, balance, and speech
80
Q

How does ataxia happen?

A
  • Part of cerebellum destroyed (e.g. by a tumour or a stroke)
  • Try to grasp an object usually unsteady and either stop before reaching it or accelerate past it
  • Display balance problems similar to those found in people who are drunk
81
Q

What does the motor cortex do?

A

Integrates and sends messages to motor neurons

82
Q

What does the basal ganglia do?

A

Action plans and overlearning

83
Q

What does the cerebellum do?

A
  • Fine movements
  • Real time adjustments
  • Proprioception

Year 1 Biological Psychology (3 decks)

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