American Cultural Theories seminar

Question 1

language (6)

Answer 1

• In the following I am going to analyse this cultural text within the theoretical framework of Roland Barthes’s myth
• Creates a stark divide between individuals through language
• Perception of differences fosters a belief that treating them differently is justified
• Process of differentiation encapsulated as othering
• The dehumanizing trajectory the discourse has taken
• By critically examining the myths conveyed by discourse, we can better understand how cultural norms are perpetuated and work towards dismantling harmful ideologies surrounding …

Question 2

Myth (7+2)

Answer 2

• Stories that shield people from harsh realities & banish contradiction
  -> Serve to sustain the social order & reinforce class distinctions
• Ideological
• Second order semiotic system –> creates a new level of meaning/ additional meaning
• Message that’s conveyed when an object, image or phrase becomes associated with a concept or value
  -> Takes on a symbolic meaning
• Shape the way we view the world
• 2 systems of signification
  -> …
• Form of discourse that tries to make cultural norms appear as facts of nature

Question 3

2 systems of signification (2+5)

Answer 3

-> Denotation
o Literal level of meaning -> shared by all members of a society
-> Connotation
o Meanings that are generated by connecting signifiers to wider cultural concerns
-> When connotations are accepted as “normal”
* Act as conceptual maps of meaning (-> make sense of the world)
* Now they’re myths

Question 4

Ideology (6+2)

Answer 4

• Set of ideas, values & beliefs that is accepted by a society, class or social group
• System of ideas forming the basis of an economic or political theory
• Justifying ideas of a social group
  -> Justifying their practices
• Attempt to fix meanings & world views in support of the powerful
  -> Helps maintain & reproduce power of the ruling class
• Works on the level of connotation ( on the level of myth)
• Works for hegemony

Question 5

Myth vs. ideology (2)

Answer 5

• Myth is to be believed & ideology is to be followed and brought into practice
• Myths are often in service of an ideology

Question 6

Hegemony (2+2)

Answer 6

• Antonio Gramsci
• Dominance especially by one state/ social group over others
  -> Total social authority over subordinate groups
  -> Shaping consensus so that power of the dominating group appears legitimate & natural

Question 7

Hegemony vs. Ideology (2)

Answer 7

• Hegemony speaks of a relationship of power that exists between different groups
• Ideology is a set of ideas

Question 8

Discourse (9+6)

Answer 8

• Michel Foucault
• Complex system of language knowledge & power
• Shapes & regulates how people think, speak & understand the world within a social & historical context
  -> Normative & regulative framework
  -> Historically & socially contingent
  o Temporarily stabilizes meaning
• Creates the subject
  -> Defines acceptable ways to discuss subjects
• Shapes the meaning assigned to objects & practices
  -> & the way we perceive things
• Self justifying (-> empowers people to continue acting the way they’re acting)
• Works on the unconscious level (ideology & myth as well)
• Creates contrast -> “othering”
  -> How is “the other” produced?
• Inextricably linked with power relations

Question 9

History of racial ideology (2+1)

Answer 9

• “all men are created equal” -> how do we justify slavery? -> racial ideology created
  -> POCs are “different” & “inferior” -> so it’s “okay” to have slavery -> different “race”
• Capitalism -> free labour -> justify a system of exploitation -> economically smart

Question 10

Whiteness (1)

Answer 10

• Whiteness perpetuated as the norm

Question 11

Disability (2+1)

Answer 11

• Concept of disability used to put on another level of suppression
• Concept of the norm (“the natural”) -> discourse constructs the norm
  -> Creates the “abnormal” -> opens the door to discrimination

Question 12

Intersectionality (3)

Answer 12

• Disrupts single axis perspectives of discrimination
• Helps identify how systems of discrimination affects people differently based on how they’re discriminated
• Shows that oppression is layered

Question 13

Discovery of America & the new space (3+4)

Answer 13

• Moving away from European corruption
• Wanted to created this sacred ground in America
  -> Creation of a free & untouched place
  o Native Americans didn’t have a space in that vision
  -> Erased
  -> Manifest destiny, city on a hill, virgin island
• America was “different” -> landscape specifically -> “untouched landscape”

Question 14

Manifest destiny (4+3)

Answer 14

• Idea in the (1830s) that the divine mission of the US is to overspread the entire American Continent
  -> Because of it’s “superior” democratic institutions
• Form of exceptionalism & beginning of American imperialism
• Used to justify the forced removal of native Americans
• US leaders & citizens in the 19th century believed in manifest destiny
  -> Inevitable extension of national power across the continent
  o Therefore inevitable destruction of native nations

Question 15

American Exceptionalism (3+2)

Answer 15

• “god given”
• Idea that America is different from all other states
  -> Because of a divine mission in world history
  -> “the greatest country in the world”
• Myth of manifest destiny functions as a tool for reinforcing & promoting the ideology of American exceptionalism

Question 16

Manifest destinies link to capitalism & economic value (1+3)

Answer 16

• Capitalist ideology believes that things are only useful if they create profit
  -> Settlers saw no monetary profit coming from land that’s not being occupied
  -> Should be turned into farms & homesteads
  o Myth -> millions of people lived there -> settlers just didn’t count native Americans

Question 17

Painting (4+11)

Answer 17

• westward expansion
  -> viewed as great opportunity to start anew
  -> but also economic opportunities
  o painting pictures westward expansion in a good light
• Right half representing eastern America & left half western America
  -> Left -> storm clouds, dark -> “bad”
  -> Right -> bright -> “good”
• Person
  -> light exudes from her
  -> so bright & goddess/ angel like -> divine
  o Like a glorious & righteous thing
  o Manifest destiny -> divine mission
  -> Responsible for smooth & uplifting transformation of wilderness into civilization
  o In reality not smooth -> brutal & thousands of deaths
  -> Trail of tears

Question 18

Myth in the painting (2+9)

Answer 18

• Myth -> Manifest Destiny (..)
  -> that shield white Americans from the harsh reality that westwards expansion was forced removal of native Americans & an act of ethnic cleansing resulting in thousands of deaths
  -> serves to sustain the social order & reinforce class distinctions between native Americans & white settlers
  -> shapes the way we view the westward expansion
  o according to manifest destiny -> inevitable
  o therefore justified & appears to be natural
  -> painting is a signifier
  o instead of viewing it just as a conventional painting -> a new level of meaning (showing westward expansion in a good way, as this divine & righteous mission) -> symbolic meaning -> myth of manifest destiny
  -> on the level of connotation now
  o works on the unconscious level
• Myth of Manifest destiny functions as a tool for reinforcing & promoting the ideology of American exceptionalism (..)

Question 19

Ideology in the painting (1+3)

Answer 19

• Ideology (..) -> American exceptionalism (..)
  -> Belief that America is inherently better & divine mission is to expand over continent
  -> Justifies westward expansion
  -> Works for hegemony

Question 20

Hegemony in the painting (1+2)

Answer 20

• Hegemony (..)
  -> can see in the painting the total social authority of white Americans/ settlers over native Americans
  -> Power relations are clear (weapons, diseases,…)

Question 21

Discourse in the Painting (1+4)

Answer 21

• All within the discourse (..) of westward expansion & American imperialism
  -> This painting shows how the way we think about westwards expansion is being shaped & regulated
  -> Creates subject of the native Americans as uncivilized people & white settlers as peaceful bringers of goodness & civilization
  o Creates this contrast -> “othering”
  -> The other is produced (through this painting) through different lighting -> dark & bright, uncivilized & civilized -> bad & good

Question 22

intersectionality in the painting

Answer 22

intersects with the concept of whiteness (..) & disability (..)