altered cell ch 2 Flashcards
atrophy
decrease in cellular size; eventually can lead to organ atrophy
hypertrophy
increase in cellular size; eventually can cause increase in organ size
hyperplasia
increased number of cells d/t increased rate of cellular division. ex: cancer
dysplasia
abnormal changes in size, shape, and organization of mature cells. “top layer” ex: pap smear
metaplasia
reversible replacement of one mature cell by another. ex:chronic smoker stops smoking, tissues regenerate
cellular responses to injury
- Decrease in ATP, causing failure of sodium-potassium pump and sodium-calcium exchange
- Failure of the Na+ K+ pump to remove intracellular Na+ results in cellular swelling
Eukaryote
Higher animals and plants, fungi, protozoa, algae.
well defined nucleus
has organelles
has a membrane
Prokaryote
Cyanobacteria, bacteria.
no membrane, nucleus, or organelles.
lack histones
Nucleus
cell division and control of genetic information
largest membrane bound organelle
Nucleolus
composed largely of RNA, most of the cellular DNA, the DNA binding proteins, and the histones that regulate its activity
synthesizes ribosomes
Ribosomes
provide sites for cellular protein synthesis
Endoplasmic reticulum
Responsible for protein synthesis, protein folding, transport, and sensing cellular distress.
Smooth ER
does not contain ribosomes or particles, but does contain enzymes involved in the synthesis of steroid hormones and are responsible
golgi apparatus
refining plant and directs traffic
folds called cisternae-where secretory vesicles collect
lysosomes
saclike organelles filled with enzymes that digest macromolecules and defunct intracellular organelles and particles engulfed from outside the cell by endocytosis
mitochondira
responsible for cellular respiration and energy production
double membrane
the inner matrix of the mitochondria
contains the enzymes of the respiratory chain, or the electron-transport chain. These enzymes are essential to the process of oxidative phosphorylation that generates most of the cell’s ATP.
cytosol
Intermediary metabolism (intracellular chemical reactions and transformation of small organic molecules), involving enzymatic biochemical reactions, ribosomal protein synthesis, and storage of carbs, fat, and secretory vesicles
cytoskeleton
shape and internal organization
mvmt of substances in the cell
mvmt of external projections
microtubules
unbranched
support and move organelles from one part of the cytoplasm to another
facilitate transport of impulses along nerve cells
have roles in the inflammatory and immune responses and hormone secretion
microfilaments
found in bundles
major driver for many cell functions including cell movement, endocytosis, and maintenance of cell and tissue shape
intermediate filaments
braided, ropelike fibers
called the nuclear lamina beneath the inner nuclear membrane and serves as a protective chamber for the cell’s DNA
oxidative phosphorylation
Occurs in the mitochondria and is the mechanism by which the energy produced from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins is transferred to ATP
incised wound
wound that is longer than is deep; has more external bleeding than internal.
stab wound
penetrating sharp-force injury that is deeper than it is long; has more internal bleeding than external
puncture wound
instruments or objects with sharp points but without sharp edges to produce puncture wounds (ex: nail).
hypothermia
caused by chilling or freezing of cells; highest risk in elderly and neonates.
Slows cellular metabolic processes, and there is ROS (free radicals) production
heat exhaustion
occurs when sufficient salt and water loss result in hypovolemia. Hypotension occurs secondary to fluid loss and the individual feels weak, nauseated, and can suddenly collapse
heat stroke
life-threatening
high environmental temperatures and humidity; core body temp rises as a result of thermoregulatory failures (106 degrees is considered life-threatening)
peripheral vasodilation and decreased circulating blood volume are significant
malignant hyperthermia
occurs in response to inhalational anesthetics or succinylcholine
Associated with increase in body temp, increased muscle metabolism, muscle rigidity, rhabdomyolysis, acidosis, and cardiovascular alterations
neuroleptic malignant syndrome
caused by the administration of neuroleptic drugs or the withdrawal of dopaminergic drugs
characterized by lead-pipe muscle rigidity, autonomic dysregulation, hyperthermia, and extrapyramidal SE
diffusion
the movement of a solute molecule from an area of greater solute concentration to an area of lesser solute concentration
The difference in concentration is known as concentration gradient
osmolality
measure of the number of dissolved particles in a fluid, in the number of molecules per weight of water
aldosterone
aid in the reabsorption of sodium and water, excretion of potassium and hydrogen, and to stabilize BP.
hypernatremia s/s
> 147
oliguria, elevated temp, tachycardia, hypotension, weak pulse, lethargy, confusion, weakness, coma, convulsions. Elevated chloride and sodium levels.
hyponatremia s/s
<135
cerebral edema, muscle twitching, headache, weight gain
hyperkalemia s/s
> 5
- caused by increased intake, shift of potassium from the ICF to the ECF, decreased renal excretion, insulin deficiency, or cell trauma
- tingling, restlessness, cramping, diarrhea, muscle weakness or paralysis, and dysrhythmias with changes in EKG (can cause v-fib or cardiac arrest). Increased neuromuscular excitability
hypokalemia s/s
<3.5 *(can be from NG suctioning)
Decreased neuromuscular excitability, skeletal muscle weakness, smooth muscle atony, or cardiac arrhythmias (bradycardia, AV block, or paroxysmal atrial tachycardia).
hypercalcemia s/s
> 10.5
Fatigue, weakness, lethargy, anorexia, nausea, constipation, impaired renal function, kidney stones, dysrhythmias, bradycardia, cardiac arrest, bone pain, osteoporosis, or fractures.
hypocalcemia s/s
<8.5
increased neuromuscular excitability, tingling, muscle spasms, intestinal cramping, hyperactive bowel sounds, osteoporosis, fractures, and severe cases results in tetany, prolonged QT interval, or cardiac arrest.
hypophospatemia
<2
- can result from intestinal malabsorption related to vit D deficiency, use of magnesium and aluminum containing antacids, long-term alcohol abuse, or respiratory alkalosis
- s/s reduced capacity for O2 transport by RBCs, platelet dysfunction, deranged nerve and muscle formation, possible respiratory failure, cardiomyopathies, and bone resorption.
hyperphosphatemia
levels above 4.7 mg/dL, can result from acute or chronic renal failure with significant loss of glomerular filtration.
Symptoms primarily related to low serum calcium levels- caused by high phosphate levels.
hypermagnesemia
> 3
- caused by renal insufficiencies or failure, excessive intake of magnesium-containing antacids, or adrenal insufficiency
- s/s lethargy, drowsiness, loss of deep-tendon reflexes, nausea, vomiting, hypotension, bradycardia, respiratory distress, heart block, or cardiac arrest.
hypomagnesemia
below 1.5 mEq/L
- can be caused by malnutrition, malabsorption syndromes, alcoholism, or urinary losses.
- s/s behavioral changes, irritability, increased reflexes, muscle cramps, ataxia, nyastagmus, tetany, convulsions, tachycardia, or hypotension
primary systemic changes associated with acute inflammatory response
fever, leukocytosis (a transient increase in the levels of circulating leukocytes), and plasma protein synthesis (increased levels of circulating plasma proteins)
catacholamines
(sympathetic nervous system) prepare the body to act, and cortisol (parasympathetic nervous system) metabolizes energy stores (glucose) and other substances needed to fuel the action.
Epi
increases cardiac output and increases blood flow to the brain, heart, and skeletal muscles by dilating vessels that supply these organs. It also dilates the airways, which increases delivery of oxygen to the bloodstream
norepinephrine
constricts blood vessels of the viscera and the skin; it also increases mental alertness
cortisol
mobilizes glucose, amino acids, lipids, and fatty acids and delivers them to the bloodstream
neutrophils
fast and numerous in early inflammatory response
Removal of debris in sterile lesions
Phagocytosis of bacteria in nonsterile lesions
eosinophils
Provide the defense against parasites and regulate vascular mediators.
Help control vascular effects of inflammation.
complement cascade
- can destroy pathogens directly
- Potent defender, great for bacterial invasion
- Activates or collaborates with every other component of the inflammatory response
GAS- alarm stage
Arousal of body defenses—fight or flight
Stressor triggers the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.
Activates the sympathetic nervous system (SNS).
GAS- resistance stage
Mobilization that contributes to fight or flight
Begins with the actions of adrenal hormones.
Cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine
GAS- stage of exhaustion
Occurs only if stress continues and adaptation is not successful
Progressive breakdown of compensatory mechanisms
May lead to the onset of disease
stimulation of B1 and B2 adrenergic receptors
- Heart pumps more blood.
- β2 stimulation increases coronary blood flow.
chronotropy
affects heart rate
inotropy
affects contraction
EKG indications of MI
ST elevation- STEMI
ST depression-NSTEMI
T inversion-NSTEMI
mitral valve stenosis
Hinders diastolic flow
Diastolic murmur (diastolic rumble)
mitral valve regurgitation
Occurs during systole
Systolic murmur
PDA manifestations
Continuous, machinery-type murmur
Bounding pulses, active precordium, thrill upon palpation, and signs and symptoms of pulmonary overcirculation.
systolic heart failure
decreased ejection fraction
“squeezing” problem
diastolic heart failure
ejection fraction preserved
“filling” problem
autonomic nervous system
Influences the rate of impulse generation (firing), depolarization, and repolarization of the myocardium
Influences the strength of atrial and ventricular contraction
Produces changes in the heart and circulatory system faster than metabolic or humoral agents
