ALR A2 Chapter 4

Question 1

Ethan’s task isn’t about human learning, but perhaps basic principles of
learning will apply. Let’s offer Ethan the following steps:

1. First, he will need to specify __________ —what Myra already “knows.”

Answer 1

entry behavior

Question 2

2. Next, Ethan will need to formulate the ________ of his task. What will his
   specific objectives be? What words should he start with? How many
   words or phrases should he teach Myra?

Answer 2

goals

Question 3

3. Next, he might want to devise _____ of training. Based on what he determines about entry behavior and goals of the task, the training process
   might have to be “_________.”

Answer 3

methods, customized

Question 4

4. Finally, Ethan will need some sort of _________ procedure . How should
   he determine whether or not Myra had indeed learned to talk?

Answer 4

evaluation

Question 5

You must
know the person’s entry behavior, specify objectives, devise methods that you
will employ, and design an evaluation procedure. These steps derive from your
conception of how human beings ___________, and that is what this chapter is all about.

Answer 5

learn

Question 6

We’ll now focus on how psychologists have defined learning , specifically
within three broad ___________: (1) behavioral psychology, (2) cognitive psychology
and cognitive linguistics, and (3) social-constructivism. The three positions
illustrate not only some of the history of learning theory, but also some
of the diverse __________ that form the foundations of varying language
teaching approaches and methods.

Answer 6

perspectives, perspectives

Question 7

Emphasizing the supremacy of _________, the crucial role of rewards and punishments, and the scientific nature of experimental evidence, ________ went virtually unchallenged
until the middle of the twentieth century.

Answer 7

conditioning paradigms, behaviorism

Question 8

The best-known classical behaviorist was the Russian psychologist Ivan
Pavlov, who at the turn of the twentieth century conducted numerous __________ experiments.

Answer 8

classical conditioning

Question 9

For Pavlov the learning process consisted of the
formation of associations between _______ and reflexive responses.

Answer 9

stimuli

Question 10

Pavlov used
the __________ response (an unconditioned response ) to the sight or smell of
food in his now famous experiments with dogs.

Answer 10

salivation

Question 11

Through repeated occurrences,
the dog associated the sound of a bell with food until the dog acquired a ___________ : salivation at the sound of the bell.

Answer 11

conditioned response

Question 12

A previously neutral
_______ (the sound of the bell) had acquired the power to elicit a _______ (salivation) that was originally elicited by another _______ (the smell of meat).

Answer 12

stimulus, response, stimulus

Question 13

Drawing on Pavlov’s findings, John Watson (1913) coined the term ___________, contending that human behavior should be studied objectively,
rejecting nonmeasurable notions of innateness and instinct.

Answer 13

behaviorism

Question 14

He adopted the
____________ theory as the explanation for all learning: By the process
of conditioning, we build an array of stimulus-response connections, and more
complex behaviors are learned by building up series or chains of responses.

Answer 14

classical conditioning

Question 15

Later, E. L. Thorndike (1932) expanded on classical conditioning models by
showing that stimuli that occurred after a behavior had an influence on future
behaviors, known as his __________.

Answer 15

Law of Effect

Question 16

Pavlov’s, Watson’s, and Thorndike’s
emphasis on the study of ______ behavior and rigorous adherence to the scientific
method had a tremendous influence on learning theories for decades.

Answer 16

overt

Question 17

Thorndike’s work paved the way for B. F. Skinner, in his seminal publication,
The Behavior of Organisms (1938), to establish himself as one of the
leading behaviorists in the United States. His approach was more appropriately
labeled as ____________, since he added a unique dimension to behavioristic
psychology (Anderson & Ausubel, 1965). Pavlov’s classical conditioning
was, according to Skinner, a highly specialized form of learning utilized mainly
by animals with minimal relevance for human conditioning.

Answer 17

neobehaviorism

Question 18

Skinner called
Pavlovian conditioning ___________ since it was concerned with
behavior that is _________ by a preceding stimulus.

Answer 18

respondent conditioning, elicited

Question 19

Skinner contended that Pavlov’s respondent conditioning was inferior to ____________ in which one “operates” on the environment.

Answer 19

operant conditioning

Question 20

Here, the
importance of a (_________) stimulus is deemphasized in favor of rewards that
follow desired behavior.

Answer 20

preceding

Question 21

For example, we cannot identify a specific stimulus
leading a baby to rise to a standing position or to take a first step; we therefore
need not be concerned about that stimulus, but we should be concerned about
the ___________ —the stimuli (_______) that follow the response.

Answer 21

consequences, rewards

Question 22

Skinner defined ______ in the learning process as acts (e.g., crying,
walking, speaking) that are emitted with no observable stimulus, and governed
by the consequences they produce.

Answer 22

operants

Question 23

According to Skinner, if
parents ignore crying (when they are certain that it is operant crying), eventually
the absence of __________ will extinguish the behavior—perhaps
Skinner wasn’t a model parent!

Answer 23

reinforcement

Question 24

According to Skinner, the events or stimuli—the _______ —that follow
a response both strengthen behavior and increase the probability of a recurrence
of that response.

Answer 24

reinforcers

Question 25

Such reinforcers are far stronger aspects of learning
than is mere association of a prior stimulus with a following response, as in the
__________ respondent conditioning model.

Answer 25

classical

Question 26

We are governed by the consequences
of our ________, and therefore Skinner felt we ought, in analyzing human
behavior, to center on the effect of those consequences.

Answer 26

behavior

Question 27

What about negative reinforcement? Skinner believed that ___________
“works to the disadvantage of both the _______ organism and the _________
agency” (1953, p. 183 ).

Answer 27

punishment, punished, punishing

Question 28

____________ can be either the withdrawal of a positive
reinforcer (such as food, a hug, or a smile) or the presentation of an aversive
stimulus (say, a harsh reprimand).

Answer 28

punishment

Question 29

Skinner felt that in the long run, punishment
does not actually eliminate behavior, but he did concede that mild punishment
may be necessary for temporary __________ of an undesired response ( Skinner,
1953 ).

Answer 29

supression

Question 30

The best method of extinction, said Skinner, is the ________ of any reinforcement
whatsoever.

Answer 30

absence

Question 31

Skinner was extremely methodical and empirical in his theory of learning,
to the point of being preoccupied with scientific controls. While many of his
experiments were performed on lower animals, his theories had an impact on
our understanding of human learning and on ________.

Answer 31

education

Question 32

His book, The Technology of Teaching (1968), was a classic in the field of ___________.

Answer 32

programmed instruction

Question 33

Skinner was convinced that virtually any subject matter could be
taught effectively by a carefully designed program of step-by-step _________.

Answer 33

reinforcement

Question 34

Skinner’s Verbal Behavior (1957) described language as a system of verbal operants,
and his understanding of the role of _____________ led to a whole new era
in educational practices around the middle of the twentieth century.

Answer 34

conditioning

Question 35

A Skinnerian view of both language and language learning strongly influenced
L2 teaching methodology in middle of the century, leading to a heavy
reliance in the classroom on the controlled practice of _____________ under
carefully designed schedules of reinforcement.

Answer 35

verbal operants

Question 36

There is much in behavioral theory that is true and valuable, but there is
another viewpoint to be considered. We’ve looked at the claim that human
behavior can be __________ and controlled and scientifically studied and validated.

Answer 36

predicted

Question 37

We have not looked at the notion that human behavior is essentially
_________ in nature, composed of such a complex and variable system that most
human learning simply cannot be accurately predicted or controlled.

Answer 37

abstract

Question 38

Cognitive psychology was in many ways a reaction to the inadequacies of
behavioral approaches to human learning. Conditioning ___________ were quite
sufficient for animal training but mostly failed to account for the network of
neurological processes involved in the acquisition of complex skills, the development
of intelligence, the ability of humans to think logically and abstractly,
and our enigmatic ability to be creative.

Answer 38

paradigms

Question 39

David Ausubel (1968) was among the first educational cognitive psychologists
to frame a theory of learning that was understandable, practical, and applicable
to classrooms and teachers. Simply put, he described human learning as a meaningful process of relating (__________) new events or items to already existing cognitive structure ( Ausubel, 1965 ).

Answer 39

associating

Question 40

You might say it’s like hanging
new items onto existing cognitive “_______.” Ausubel’s (1968) perspective
accounted for the acquisition of new meanings (knowledge), retention, the
organization of knowledge in a hierarchical structure, and the eventual occurrence
of ________.

Answer 40

pegs, forgetting

Question 41

Meaningful learning is best understood by contrasting it with _________. Ausubel described __________ as the process of acquiring material
as “discrete and relatively isolated entities” (1968, p. 108 ) that have little or no
association with existing cognitive structure.

Answer 41

rote learning, rote learning

Question 42

On the other hand, meaningful learning, or ___________, may be
described as a process of relating and anchoring new material to relevant established
entities in cognitive structure.

Answer 42

subsumption

Question 43

As new material enters our perceptual
field, it interacts with, and is appropriately subsumed under, a more ______
conceptual system.

Answer 43

inclusive

Question 44

If we think of cognitive structure as a system of building
blocks, then______ is the process of acquiring isolated blocks with no
particular relationship to other blocks.

Answer 44

rote learning

Question 45

_________ is the process
whereby blocks become an integral part of already established categories or
systematic clusters of blocks.

Answer 45

Meaningful learning

Question 46

The significance of the distinction between rote and meaningful learning
has tremendous implications for both natural and __________ language acquisition.

Answer 46

instructed

Question 47

Recent linguistic research ( Ellis & Collins, 2009 ) has placed emphasis on
the role of ________ in language acquisition—a role that fits well with behavioral
perspectives.

Answer 47

frequency

Question 48

But consider the power of _________ (importance,
significance, relatability) in the eventual retention of cognitive items. If you
carelessly run across a crosswalk and narrowly miss getting hit by a car, you
won’t need frequent repetitions of that scare to teach you to be careful. Once
is enough!

Answer 48

meaningfulness

Question 49

Granted, human beings are capable of learning almost any given item
within the so-called “magic _____, plus or minus two” ( Miller, 1956 ) units for
perhaps a few seconds.

Answer 49

seven

Question 50

We can remember an unfamiliar phone number, for
example, long enough to call the number, after which point the phone number
is usually extinguished by _________.

Answer 50

interfering factors

Question 51

Arbitrarily assigned, nonsystematically
defined numbers are often difficult to retain. To compensate, we can
resort to what Smith (1975) called “manufacturing meaningfulness” (p. 162),
that is, inventing artificial __________ to remember a list of items, perhaps
for an upcoming examination.

Answer 51

mnemonic devices

Question 52

Long-term memory is a different matter. A meaningfully learned, subsumed
item has greater potential for ___________.

Answer 52

retention

Question 53

Why do we forget things? A behavioral explanation cites in frequency of input,
the cessation of practice, and lack of reinforcement. A cognitive perspective
takes a much broader view, looking at saliency, relevance, emotion, and the
strength of anchoring mental sets that capture a trace of __________.

Answer 53

memory

Question 54

Once again, Ausubel (1965, 1968) provided a plausible explanation for the
universal nature of ___________. Since rotely learned material is not substantively
merged into cognitive structure, its retention is influenced primarily by the interfering
effects of similar rote material learned immediately before or after the
learning task.

Answer 54

forgetting

Question 55

Once again, Ausubel (1965, 1968) provided a plausible explanation for the
universal nature of forgetting. Since rotely learned material is not substantively
merged into cognitive structure, its retention is influenced primarily by the interfering
effects of similar rote material learned immediately before or after the
learning task. The consequence of such effects is referred to as ___________ and
___________ inhibition .

Answer 55

proactive, retroactive

Question 56

In the case of meaningfully learned material, retention
is influenced primarily by the properties of “relevant and cumulatively established
________ systems in cognitive structure with which the learning task
interacts” ( Ausubel, 1968 , p. 108 ).

Answer 56

ideational

Question 57

We cannot say, of course, that meaningfully learned material is never forgotten.
But in the case of such learning, forgetting takes place in a much more
intentional and _____ manner because it is actually a _____ of the
very process of subsumption by which one learns.

Answer 57

systematic, continuation

Question 58

Forgetting is really a second
or “____________” stage of subsumption, characterized as “memorial reduction to
the least common denominator” ( Ausubel, 1963 , p. 218 ).

Answer 58

obliterative

Question 59

Another way of conceptualizing this second stage of subsumption is in a
horticultural metaphor: _______ ( Brown, 1972 ). When you _____ a
tree, your aim is to eliminate unnecessary clutter and to clear the way for more
growth.

Answer 59

cognitive pruning, prune

Question 60

Mixing metaphors and switching to the building-block analogy, one might say that at the outset, a structure made of blocks is seen as a few individual
blocks, but as the mind begins to give the structure a perceived shape, some of the single blocks achieve less and less identity in their own right and
become subsumed into the larger structure. Finally, the single blocks are lost to perception, or “_____” out, and the total structure is perceived as a single
whole without clearly defined parts.

Answer 60

pruned

Question 61

Examples of pruning abound in the development of concepts. Learning
that a cup of hot coffee, a pan of boiling water, or an iron, for example, can cause excessive pain is a _________.

Answer 61

cognitive process

Question 62

A small child’s first exposure to
such heat may be either direct contact or a verbal “don’t touch!” or “hot!” After a number of exposures to such hot things, the child begins to form a ________ of “hotness” by clustering experiences together and forming a generalization.

Answer 62

concept

Question 63

An important aspect of the pruning stage of learning is that systematic
forgetting, or pruning, is not ________ or chance. Thus by promoting
optimal pruning procedures, we have a potential learning situation that will
produce retention beyond that normally expected under more traditional
theories of forgetting.

Answer 63

haphazard

Question 64

Interestingly, pruned items may not actually be obliterated. They may be
difficult to consciously retrieve, but could still be an integral part of “deep”
cognitive structure. The notion of ___________ in SLA may be a case in point.

Answer 64

automaticity

Question 65

In the early stages of language learning, certain ______ (definitions, paradigms,
illustrations, or rules) are often used to facilitate subsumption. But in the process
of making language automatic, the _____ serve only as “interim” entities, meaningful at a low level of subsumption, and then they are systematically
pruned out at later stages of language learning.

Answer 65

devices, devices

Question 66

We might effectively achieve the goal of __________ by
removing unnecessary barriers to automaticity. A definition, mnemonic device,
or a paraphrase might be initially facilitative, but as its need is minimized by
larger and more global conceptualizations, it is pruned.

Answer 66

communicative competence

Question 67

For example, a learner
in the early stages of acquisition will perhaps overtly learn the ____ for when
and how to use the present perfect tense. That building block enables the
learner to produce past perfect forms correctly and in context, but in later
stages the rule ceases to be explicitly retrieved in favor of the automatic production
of the correct verb without any recourse to the _____ learned earlier.

Answer 67

rule, rule

Question 68

Research on _______ has focused on a variety of possible causes
for the loss of second language skills ( Lambert & Freed, 1982 ; Weltens, 1987 ;
Weltens & Cohen, 1989 ; Tomiyama, 2000 ; Montrul, 2002 , 2008, 2011). Some
studies have shown that lexical, phonological, or syntactic features may be more
vulnerable than idioms, semantic factors, or discourse elements ( Andersen,
1982 ; Nakuma, 1998 ).

Answer 68

language attrition

Question 69

Obler (1982) suggested that “___________”
(left-/right-brain functioning) could contribute to forgetting. Other common reasons
for language attrition include the following: (1) the strength and conditions
of initial learning, (2) the kind of use that a second language has been put to,
(3) motivational factors ( Gardner, 1982 ), and (4) cultural identity ( Priven, 2002 ).

Answer 69

neurolinguistic blocking

Question 70

Attrition is not limited to second language acquisition ( Porte, 1999 ; Isurin,
2000 ). Native language forgetting can occur in cases of _________
( Siegel, 2003 ; Montrul, 2008 , 2011), when learners rely more and more
on a second language, which eventually replaces their first language.

Answer 70

subtractive bilingualism

Question 71

Cognitive psychology provides a strong theoretical basis for the rejection
of conditioning models of _____ and ________ in language teaching.

Answer 71

practice, repitition

Question 72

Rote learning can be effective on a short-term basis, but
for any long-term retention it fails because of a buildup of ____________.

Answer 72

interference

Question 73

A case
in point was the ____________, based almost exclusively on a behavioral
theory of conditioning and rote learning. The mechanical “stamping in” of the
language through saturation with little reference to meaning was seriously challenged
by a more broadly based cognitive view ( Ausubel, 1964 ).

Answer 73

Audiolingual Method

Question 74

In the 1980s, the place of language in cognition, along with the development
of linguistic abilities as an integral component of _________, became a central
focus for linguists and applied linguists.

Answer 74

cognition

Question 75

We have already referred to some of
the issues surrounding language and thought, the place of language acquisition
in intellectual development, and cognitive considerations in examining
age and acquisition. Such mergers of psychology and linguistics gave rise not
only to _______ as a field in its own right, but also to what has come
to be called cognitive linguistics ( Evans & Green, 2006 ; Verspoor & Tyler,
2009 ; Holme, 2012 ), with its standard-bearing journal, Cognitive Linguistics ,
leading the way in related research.

Answer 75

psycholinguistics

Question 76

Generative and nativist traditions in the study of L1 acquisition tended to view language as independent of ____ and _______ functioning.

Answer 76

cognitive, social

Question 77

In a mathematically
based model, the child was thought to possess a deep structure of
syntactic and phonological rules that in turn generated an infinite variety of
______ of language.

Answer 77

strings

Question 78

In contrast, many of today’s linguistic researchers are
highly attuned to the interrelated dynamics of language and ______.

Answer 78

cognition

Question 79

George
Lakoff (1987; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980 , 2003) was among the vanguard of such
inquiry in examining the rich cognitive and social backdrop of metaphor. Soon,
inspired by linguists like Deborah Tannen (1990, 1996) and Leonard Talmy
(2003), among others, we could no longer look at a child’s or adult’s language
acquisition as simply the _________ of language divorced from
cognitive, functional, and pragmatic contexts.

Answer 79

computational generation

Question 80

Several themes characterize cognitive linguistic approaches ( Croft & Cruse,
2004 ; Evans & Green, 2006 ; Robinson & Ellis, 2008 ):

1. Language is not an autonomous _____.

Answer 80

faculty

Question 81

2. _______ is not simply an arbitrary set of rules but rather is interwoven
   with conceptualization and knowledge.

Answer 81

Syntax

Question 82

Language ability cannot be examined without concurrent consideration of
language _____.

Answer 82

use

Question 83

In the last part of the twentieth century, as studies in L1 and L2 acquisition
continued to probe the place of language in human development, it became
increasingly obvious that language is interconnected with __________
such as perception, memory, categorization, meaning, and attention ( Robinson &
Ellis, 2008 ).

Answer 83

cognitive concepts

Question 84

Cognitive linguistics was applied to teaching methodology by Holme
(2012), who designed a pedagogical model for the L2 classroom. He incorporated
concepts of “____________” (metaphor), the reality of lexicon and grammar,
concept formation, and usage to form cornerstones for understanding classroom
approaches and techniques.

Answer 84

embodiment

Question 85

It is safe to conclude that cognitive linguistics
is not so much a radical new field of inquiry as it is the result of a
coalescence of research findings and the merging of many strands of research,
all of which seek to establish the relationship between language and our complex
_____________.

Answer 85

neural networks

Question 86

Rogers is not traditionally thought of as a “________” psychologist, yet his work had a significant impact on our present understanding of learning, particularly
in educational contexts.

Answer 86

learning

Question 87

His views on humanistic psychology emanated from
his classic work Client-Centered Therapy (1951), an analysis of human
behavior in terms of a “phenomenological” perspective, a perspective in sharp
contrast to his contemporary, ______________.

Answer 87

Skinner

Question 88

Rogers saw the “whole person” as a
physical and cognitive, but primarily ____________ being.

Answer 88

emotional

Question 89

Rogers’s position has important implications for education ( Curran, 1972 ;
Rogers, 1983 ; O’Hara, 2003 ) by focusing away from “teaching” and toward
“learning” or, in O’Hara’s (2003) terms, “____________.”

Answer 89

transformative pedagogy

Question 90

The goal of
education is the _____________ of change and learning. Learning how to learn is
more important than being taught something from the “superior” vantage point
of a teacher who unilaterally decides what shall be taught.

Answer 90

facilitation

Question 91

Many of our present systems of education, in prescribing curricular goals
and dictating objectives, deny persons both freedom and dignity. What is
needed, according to Rogers, is for teachers to become ____________ of learning,
discarding masks of superiority and omniscience.

Answer 91

facilitators

Question 92

We can see in Rogers’s humanism a radical departure from the scientific
analysis of behavioral psychology and even from strictly cognitive theories.
Rogers was not as concerned about the actual cognitive process of learning
because, he felt, if the context for learning is properly created with due attention
to students’ __________ states, then they will learn everything they need to.

Answer 92

affective

Question 93

Of course, teachers could take the nondirective approach too far, to the
point that valuable time is lost in the process of allowing students to “____________”
facts and principles for themselves.

Answer 93

discover

Question 94

Also, a nonthreatening environment might
become so “warm and fuzzy” that the facilitative tension needed for learning is
absent. There is ample research documenting the positive effects of _____________
in a classroom, as long as that ____________ does not damage selfesteem
and hinder motivation to learn ( Bailey, 1983 ).

Answer 94

competitiveness, competitiveness

Question 95

Another giant in educational theory is Brazilian educator Paolo Freire (1970).
Freire vigorously objected to traditional “__________” concepts of education in
which teachers think of their task as one of “filling” students “by making
deposits of information which [they] consider to constitute true knowledge—
deposits which are detached from reality” (1970, p. 62 ).

Answer 95

banking

Question 96

Instead, Freire argued,
students should be allowed to negotiate learning outcomes, to cooperate with
teachers and other learners in a process of discovery, and to relate everything they do in school to their _________ outside the classroom.

Answer 96

reality

Question 97

___________
must be focused on helping students to engage in critical thinking: to look
beneath various canons of knowledge and to question that which they are
simply told to accept unequivocally.

Answer 97

Education

Question 98

Freire wanted all students to become
instruments of their own ___________ , “lifting themselves up by their own bootstraps.”

Answer 98

empowerment

Question 99

While such “_________” views of education should be approached
with some caution ( Clarke, 1990 ), learners may nevertheless be empowered to
achieve solutions to real problems in the real world.

Answer 99

liberationist

Question 100

Russian-born Lev Vygotsky (1962, 1978), author of the seminal 1934 work,
Thought and Language , went almost unnoticed at the time as the limelight
shone on his countryman Pavlov and his behaviorist associates. But in the
latter part of the twentieth century, as the shifting sands of psychological
research paid due attention to ______ and _______ factors, Vygotsky’s
contributions to human learning were lauded for their unique insights.

Answer 100

sociocultural, affective

Question 101

or Vygotsky the key to understanding higher forms (beyond simply physical
reflexes) of human mental activity lay in the ______ of symbols, signs,
and language.

Answer 101

mediation

Question 102

In Vygotsky’s view, the task for psychology is “to understand
how human social and mental activity is organized through culturally constructed
_______ and social relationships” ( Lantolf, 2000 , p. 80 ).

Answer 102

artifacts

Question 103

Language is not only an instrument for thought, but also, as Vygotsky so ably emphasized, an ability that develops through _________. Language
is primarily a tool for communication with other human beings, and it is this symbiotic relationship that is a driving force in the development and growth
of cognition.

Answer 103

social interaction

Question 104

From this sociocultural perspective, a child’s early stages of language
acquisition are an outgrowth of the process of “meaning-making in _____________
activity with other members of a given culture” ( Mitchell & Myles,
2004 , p. 200 ).

Answer 104

collaborative

Question 105

The work of Rogers, Freire, and Vygotsky contributed significantly to a slow but steady redefinition of the _________ in the last twenty years
or so.

Answer 105

educational process

Question 106

________ are increasingly striving to enable learners to understand
themselves and to create optimal environments for social interaction and negotiation
of meaning. Teachers as facilitators are providing nurturing contexts for
learners to face real-world issues and to believe in themselves.

Answer 106

Educators

Question 107

When teachers
rather programmatically feed students quantities of knowledge, which they subsequently devour, those teachers foster a climate of “_______” learning in which learners—in competition with classmates—try to _______ themselves from failure, criticism, and possibly from punishment.

Answer 107

defensive, protect

Question 108

Ancient Greek philosophers reminded their audiences of the importance of body, mind, and soul in their inquiry. Likewise, the three major perspectives that have been described here—_____, _____, and _____ constructivist— allow us to put together a comprehensive understanding of human learning and cognition.

Answer 108

behavioral, cognitive, social

Question 109

A behavioral theory helps us to understand some fundamentals
of learning for all organisms. Cognitive viewpoints have multiplied our appreciation of the intricacies of the uniquely human language-thought connection. And without coming full circle (triangle?) to affectively based sociocultural insights, our understanding would not be __________.

Answer 109

balanced

Question 110

Robert Gagné (1965, pp. 58 – 59 ) ably demonstrated the importance of identifying a number of universal _____ of human learning.

Answer 110

types

Question 111

1. Signal learning. Attending to something in one’s ________ (music, animal sounds, human voices, etc.), typical of Pavlovian classical conditioning.
   Linguistic application: human beings notice and attend to
   human language

Answer 111

environment

Question 112

2. Stimulus–response learning. The learner makes a response to a “________” stimulus, a specific attendance to a single element in one’s perceptual environment. Linguistic application: Noticing and responding
   to specific sounds, words, and nonverbal gestures, and receiving a reward for the response.

Answer 112

discriminated

Question 113

3. Chaining. Learning a chain of two or more stimulus-response ____________.
   Linguistic application: Stringing several sounds or words together to attempt to communicate meaning.

Answer 113

connections

Question 114

4. Verbal association. Attaching _______ to verbal/nonverbal chains.
   Linguistic application: Assigning meaning to various verbal stimuli.
   “Nonsense” syllables become meaningful for communication.

Answer 114

meaning

Question 115

5. Multiple discrimination. Learning to make different
   _______ to many varying stimuli, which may resemble each other. Linguistic application:
   Noticing differences between/among sounds, words, or phrases that are similar. For example, minimal pairs (sheep/ship), homonyms (left/left),
   and synonyms (maybe/perhaps).

Answer 115

responses

Question 116

6. Concept learning. Learning to make a common response to a class of stimuli even though the individual members of that _____ may differ widely from each other. Linguistic application: The word “hot” applies to stoves, candles, and irons; young children learn that four-legged farm animals are not all “horsies.”

Answer 116

class

Question 117

7. Principle learning. Learning a chain of two or more _______, a cluster of related _______. Linguistic application: Verbs in the past tense are classified into regular and irregular forms, yet both forms express the concept
   of tense .

Answer 117

concepts, concepts

Question 118

8. Problem solving. Previously acquired concepts and _________ are combined
   in a conscious focus on an unresolved or ambiguous set of events.
   Linguistic application: Learning that metaphorical language is not simply idiosyncratic, but connected to cultural world views and ways of thinking, thus explaining why a dead person is “gone.” Also, using language to solve problems, such as information gap exercises in a classroom. You may notice that the first five types fit easily into a behavioral

Answer 118

principles

Question 119

You may notice that the first five types fit easily into a behavioral framework, while the last three are better explained by cognitive or sociocultural perspectives. Since all eight types of learning are relevant to second language learning, a cautious implication is that certain _____ aspects of SLA may be more effectively treated by behavioral approaches and methods, while certain
_____ types are more effectively taught by methods derived from cognitive or sociocultural approaches to learning.

Answer 119

lower-level, higher-order

Question 120

Methods of teaching, in recognizing different levels of learning, need to be consonant with whichever aspect of language is being taught at a particular _____ while also recognizing the interrelatedness of all levels of language learning.

Answer 120

time

Question 121

Human beings approach any new problem by using whatever __________ they possess to attempt a solution, more technically described as the interaction of previously learned material with a present learning event.

Answer 121

cognitive structures

Question 122

From
the beginning of life, we build a structure of knowledge by the accumulation of _____ and by the storage of aspects of those _____ in memory.

Answer 122

experiences, experiences

Question 123

Each of those billions of neural bytes become associated with other pieces of our memory, and in the process, some of those connections are bound to facilitate and some are destined to debilitate. Let’s consider this phenomenon in terms of three associated concepts in learning: transfer, interference, and
__________________.

Answer 123

overgeneralization

Question 124

Transfer usually refers to the carryover of previous performance or knowledge to subsequent learning. (It can also apply to the effect of a current act of learning on previously learned material, which is known as ________, but we’ll deal with that in a moment.)

Answer 124

retroactive transfer

Question 125

__________ occurs when the prior knowledge benefits the learning task—that is, when a previous item
is correctly applied to present subject matter.

Answer 125

Positive transfer

Question 126

_________ occurs when a previous performance disrupts or inhibits the performance of a second task.

Answer 126

Negative transfer

Question 127

Positive transfer occurs when the prior knowledge benefits the learning task—that is, when a previous item is correctly applied to present subject matter. Negative transfer occurs when
previous performance disrupts or inhibits the performance of a second task. The latter can be referred to as _________, in that previously learned material conflicts with subsequent material—a previous item is incorrectly transferred or incorrectly associated with an item to be learned.

Answer 127

interference

Question 128

A nonlanguage example: Eight-year-old Kaliana has already learned to ride a bicycle, and now attempts to ride her newly acquired skateboard. She _____ transfers the psychomotor process of keeping her balance on a moving vehicle. So far, so good. However, she _____ transfers the experience of steering a front wheel for balance to the skateboard, which results in a skinned knee. Eventually she learns that steering on a skateboard is accomplished by a
combination of footwork and leaning the body.

Answer 128

positively, negatively

Question 129

The most salient example in SLA is the effect of the first-learned native language on the second. Many L2 courses warn teachers and students of the perils of such negative transfer, in fact, the L1 is usually an immediately noticeable source of _____ among learners.

Answer 129

error

Question 130

Let’s say you studied French in high school and now you take up Spanish in college. One of the goals of your teacher is to help you and your classmates to positively transfer various strategies, mindsets, linguistic tricks, and _________ knowledge to this newest language.

Answer 130

cross-cultural

Question 131

Even more commonly, suppose you have been learning English as a second language for a few months now. You are most certainly acquiring pieces of the language that have a cumulative effect on your current lessons. You could claim that you are not only building lexical, syntactic, discourse, and other abilities, but you are also “getting the hang of it,” as your ________ improves.

Answer 131

strategic competence

Question 132

A final aspect of positive transfer within a language pertains to the application of course content to the “_____” outside of the classroom. English for Academic Purposes (EAP), for example, helps students to learn English skills but also to learn the academic “game,” which might be quite new to students studying English in an English-speaking university and country.

Answer 132

real world

Question 133

Of significant interest for some linguists is the _______ effect of a second language on the first. It is not uncommon for those who take up residence in a foreign country not only to learn the language of their new home, but also for their native language to be “_______.”

Answer 133

retroactive, affected

Question 134

This phenomenon is
found among some bilinguals whose home language is the _______ language
of their country of residence. Spanish in the United States is an
example ( Montrul, 2011 ).

Answer 134

nondominant

Question 135

In the literature on SLA, interference is almost as frequent a term as _______, which is simply a form of negative transfer. Generalization involves inferring or deriving a law, rule, or conclusion from the observation of particular instances.

Answer 135

overgeneralization

Question 136

In terms of the previously discussed meaningful
learning, items are subsumed (_______) under higher-order categories for meaningful retention. Concept learning for children is the _______ of a
principle from experience with particulars.

Answer 136

generalized, generalization

Question 137

A child learns that ice cream is
delicious from a few encounters with the cold, sweet taste. Usually very few encounters are required! The concept of future time, often mediated by language, is a generalization from _______.

Answer 137

particulars

Question 138

In SLA it is customary to refer to overgeneralization as a _______ that occurs as the L2 learner acts within the target language, generalizing a particular
rule or item in the L2— irrespective of the L1—beyond legitimate bounds.

Answer 138

process

Question 139

We have already observed that children acquiring English as a native language overgeneralize regular past tense endings ( walked, opened ) as applicable to all past tense forms ( goed, flied ) until they recognize a subset of verbs that belong in an “_______” category.

Answer 139

irregular

Question 140

_______ and _______ reasoning are two polar aspects of the generalization process.

Answer 140

inductive, deductive

Question 141

In the case of ________, one stores a number of specific
instances and induces a general law or rule or conclusion that governs or subsumes
the specific instances.

Answer 141

inductive reasoning

Question 142

________ is a movement from a generalization to specific instances: A general principle allows a person to infer specific facts.

Answer 142

Deductive reasoning

Question 143

L1 learning and natural or untutored SLA involve a largely _______: Learners must infer certain rules and meanings from all the data around them. Most of those rules are learned implicitly, without “conscious,” explicit ability to verbalize them.

Answer 143

inductive process

Question 144

Classroom language learning tends to rely—more than it should, no doubt—on _______.

Answer 144

deductive reasoning

Question 145

Traditional methods overemphasize the use of
deductive reasoning by requiring _______ to a rule with subsequent attention to its instances.

Answer 145

explicit access

Question 146

Much of the evidence in communicative L2 learning points to the overall superiority of an inductive approach; however, in the case of _______ instruction (see Chapter 9), learners might reap the benefit of the positive effects of having errors called to their attention.

Answer 146

form-focused

Question 147

An interesting extension of the inductive/deductive dichotomy was reported in Peters’ (1981) case study of a child learning a first language. Peters found that
her subject manifested a number of “_______” characteristics, producing “wholes” in the form of _______ patterns well before speaking the particular words that
made up the sentences.

Answer 147

Gestalt, intonation

Question 148

Peters cited other evidence of Gestalt learning in children
and concluded that such “_______” (vs. “word learners”) may be more common than researchers had previously assumed.

Answer 148

sentence learners

Question 149

In L2 teaching, Wong (1986) capitalized on just such a concept in a discussion of teaching communicative _______. She advocated explicitly teaching overall intonation patterns for greetings, yes-no questions, and syllable stress before learners had tackled their specific syntactic forms.

Answer 149

oral production

Question 150

The discussion so far in this chapter has focused on perception, storage, and
recall. Little has been said about a related and somewhat controversial issue
in SLA, _______.

Answer 150

language aptitude

Question 151

Historically, research on language aptitude has been a roller-coaster ride. John Carroll’s ( Carroll & Sapon, 1959 ) pioneering work on aptitude, embodied in the _________ (MLAT), began the quest.

Answer 151

Modern Language Aptitude Test

Question 152

First, even
though the paper-and-pencil tests claimed to measure language aptitude, it soon became apparent that they more than likely reflected the general intelligence or academic ability of a student in any instructional setting ( Skehan, 1989 ; DeKeyser & Koeth, 2011 ). At best, they appeared to measure ability to perform focused, analytical, _______ activities that occupy a student in a traditional language classroom.

Answer 152

context-reduced

Question 153

They hardly even began to tap into the kinds of learning strategies and styles that subsequent research ( Ehrman, 1990 ; Oxford, 1990b, 1996 ; Reid,
1995 ; Chamot, 2005 ; Cohen, 1998 ) showed to be crucial in the acquisition of communicative competence in _______ situations

Answer 153

context-embedded

Question 154

A new era of aptitude research was launched with Skehan’s (1998) exposure of the weaknesses of previous aptitude constructs, and his proposal to look at aptitude from a broader view of SLA that incorporates input processing, inductive language learning, output strategies, and _______.

Answer 154

fluency

Question 155

Dörnyei and Skehan also cite other research to conclude that “aptitude is relevant not simply for conventional, explicit, rule-focused teaching contexts, but also when the learning is implicit [in _______]” (p. 600 ).

Answer 155

natural contexts

Question 156

Dörnyei (2009) noted that motivation, learning styles, learning strategies,
anxiety, and other_______ in language learners may also be related to a learner’s eventual success in learning an L2.

Answer 156

individual differences

Question 157

_______, a construct with multiple definitions and theories, has traditionally been defined and measured in terms of linguistic and logical-mathematical
abilities. The notion of IQ (_______) is based on several generations of testing of these two domains, stemming from the early twentieth-century research of Alfred Binet, creator of the famous Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales .

Answer 157

Intelligence, Intelligence Quotient

Question 158

Does IQ correlate equally well with successful SLA? Will a smart person be capable of learning a second language successfully because of high intelligence?
Not according to a good deal of research and observation over the last few decades. It appears that our “language learning IQs” involve more than simply academic “_____.”

Answer 158

smarts

Question 159

Robert Sternberg (1985, 1988) also shook up the world of traditional intelligence measurement. In his _______ view of intelligence, Sternberg proposed three types of “smartness”:

Answer 159

triarchic

Question 160

Finally, in another effort to remind us of the bias of traditional definitions and tests of intelligence, Daniel Goleman’s work on _______ ( Goleman, 1995 , 1998; Merlevede, Bridoux, & Vandamme, 2001) is persuasive in placing emotion, or what might be called EQ (_______), at the seat of intellectual functioning.

Answer 160

emotional intelligence, Emotional Quotient

Question 161

Goleman has also more recently followed up with work on social
as well as _______, in an effort to apply emotional management to practical life situations ( Goleman, 2006 , 2009).

Answer 161

ecological intelligence

Question 162

Educational institutions have recently been applying _______ to a variety of school-oriented contexts. Thomas Armstrong (1993, 1994),
for example, focused teachers and learners on “seven ways of being smart,” capitalizing on all forms of intelligence.

Answer 162

multiple intelligence theory

Question 163

Two language teaching methods emerged in the last century of language teaching that bear a singular relationship to certain perspectives on learning.
The _______ method, inspired by behavioristic principles, and _______, a direct attempt to apply Carl Roger’s theories, are in stark contrast with each other.

Answer 163

Audiolingual, Community Language Learning

Question 164

The outbreak of World War II thrust the United States into a worldwide conflict, heightening the need for Americans to become orally proficient in the languages of both their allies and their enemies. The U.S. military, perceiving the need for intensive language courses that focused on _______ skills, funded what came to be known as the Army Specialized Training Program
(ASTP), or, more colloquially, the “_______.”

Answer 164

aural/oral, Army Method

Question 165

In all its variations and adaptations, the Army Method came to be known in the 1950s as _______.

Answer 165

Audiolingual Method (ALM)

Question 166

With widespread publication of textbooks and curricula, the ALM enjoyed
a number of years of popularity. But the enthusiasm eventually waned, due in
part to Wilga Rivers’s (1964) eloquent exposure of ALM’s ultimate failure to
teach long-term __________.

Answer 166

communicative proficiency

Question 167

The ALM also lost some of its glamor when the Chomskyan revolution in linguistics turned linguists and language teachers toward the _______ of language and when psychologists began to recognize the fundamentally _______ nature of language learning. Looking at SLA through the combined lenses of cognitive and affective factors spawned a creative, if somewhat chaotic
era during which innovative language teaching methods flourished.

Answer 167

deep structure, interpersonal

Question 168

In his “_______” model of education, Charles Curran (1972)
was inspired by Rogers’s (1951) view of education in which students and
teacher join together to facilitate learning in a context of valuing and prizing
each individual in the group.

Answer 168

Counseling-Learning

Question 169

Curran’s model of education was extended to language learning contexts in the form of _______ ( LaForge, 1971 ).

Answer 169

Community Language Learning

Question 170

CLL was a valiant attempt to put Carl Rogers’s philosophy into action and to overcome some of the threatening _______ factors in second language learning. But practical and theoretical problems emerged.

Answer 170

affective

Question 171

The _______ role
of the counselor-teacher caused a good deal of “trial by error,” much of which was not productive.

Answer 171

nondirective

Question 172

Despite its weaknesses, CLL offers certain insights to teachers. We are reminded to lower learners’ _______, to create as much of a supportive group in our classrooms as possible, to allow students to initiate language (up to a point), and to move learners toward autonomy in preparation for the day when they no longer have the teacher to guide them.

Answer 172

anxiety