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All Units Flashcards

1
Q

Threats to internal validity

A 
Ambiguous temporal precedence
history, 
maturation, 
repeat testing, 
instrumentation, 
regression to the mean, 
selection, 
and mortality
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2
Q

a true experiment must generally satisfy three conditions:

A

(1) the groups assigned to different treatment conditions must be initially equivalent, which is usually accomplished by random assignment of subjects;
(2) the independent variable must be a manipulated variable; and
(3) the existence of a control condition against which the behaviour of experimental subjects (as in between-subject designs) or of the same subjects in the treatment condition (as in within-subject designs) is compared.

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3
Q

the three processes in the discovery of regularities.

A
  • Description of a behaviour
  • Discovery of laws
  • Search for causes
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4
Q

What is a law?

A

A statement that certain events are regularly associated with each other in an orderly way.

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5
Q

Define a theory

A

Broadly speaking a theory is a statement or set of statements about the relationships among variables.

Strictly speaking, a theory is a statement or a set of statements about relationships among variables that includes at least one concept that is not directly observed but that is necessary to explain these relationships.

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6
Q

What roles do theories play in science?

A

1) Organizing knowledge and explaining laws (past)
2) Predicting new laws (future)
3) Guiding research (present/future)

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7
Q

What is a paradigm?

A

A set of laws, theories, methods, and applications that form a scientific research tradition: for example, Pavlovian conditioning.

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8
Q

Distinguish between independent variables and dependent variables

A

Independent: one that the experimenter changes deliberately
Dependent: measures the impact of changes in the independent variable

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9
Q

Distinguish between quantitative and categorical variables.

A

Quantitative: on that varies in amount – speed of response
Categorical: one that varies in kind – college major or gender

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10
Q

What is the difference between continuous and discrete variables?

A

Continuous: one that falls along a continuum and is not limited to a certain number – measured based on a small degree.

Discrete: one that falls into separate bins with no intermediate values – number of marriages, murders.
Differs from categorical because it is a number group not a specific category group.

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11
Q

Describe the four types of measurement scales

A

Nominal Scale: a measure that divides objects or events into categories according to their similarities or differences.

Ordinal scale: ranks objects or events in order of their magnitude,

Interval scale: a measure in which the differences between numbers are meaningful and based on previous data.

Ratio scale: a measure having a meaningful zero point as well as all of the nominal, ordinal, and interval properties.

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12
Q

Define validity of a measurement.

A

Validity of a measurement is the property of a measurement that tests what it is supposed to test

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13
Q

Construct Validity (of a measurement):

A

a test that the measurements actually measure the constructs they are designed to measure, but no others.

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14
Q

Face validity

A

a test should appear superficially to test what it is supposed to test.

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15
Q

Content Validity

A

idea that a test should sample the range of behavior repre- sented by the theoretical concept being tested.
- An intelligence test should cover general knowledge, verbal ability, spatial ability, and quantitative skills. Not just spatial ability.

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16
Q

Criterion validity:

A

a test should correlate with the other measures of the same theoretical content

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17
Q

Define internal validity.

A

The degree to which the experimental manipulation alone caused the change in behaviour

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18
Q

What is meant by confounding?

A

error that occurs when the effects of two variables in an experiment cannot be separated, resulting in a confused interpretation of the results

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19
Q

subject variable:

A

a difference between subjects that cannot be controlled but can only be selected

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20
Q

Define construct validity.

A

The extent to which the results support the theory behind the research.

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21
Q

Define external validity.

A

concerns whether the results of the research can be generalized to another situation: different subjects, settings, times, treatments, observations, and so forth.

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22
Q

Define statistical conclusion validity.

A

extent to which data are shown to be the result of cause-effect relationships rather than accident.

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23
Q

Briefly describe two threats to construct validity.

A

Loose connection between theory and method

Ambiguous effect of independent variables:

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24
Q

three threats to external validity.

A

Other subjects
Other times
Other settings

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25
Q

two broad categories of bias resulting from the interaction between subject and experimenter?

A

Good-subject tendency

evaluation apprehension: tendency of experimental participants to alter their behavior to appear as socially desirable as possible.

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26
Q

What distinguishes non-experimental from experimental research?

A

• By its own definition, non-experimental research has no controlled experiments to test a variable. It is largely differentiated by the degree of control that the researcher has over the subjects and conditions.

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27
Q

Why is non-experimental research often called correlational research?

A

• Because in these types of studies they can often demonstrated a correlation, but struggle to know which variable caused the other or which of the two caused the third variable to occur.

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28
Q

Briefly describe several common varieties of non-experimental research

A 
Qualitative research
Correlational research
Observational research
Archival research 
Case study
Survey
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29
Q

Describe briefly three common ways of sampling behaviours in observational research.

A

Time sampling: selecting various time intervals, either systematically or randomly

Event sampling: recording each event that meets a predetermined definition

Situation sampling: observing behaviour in as many different locations and under as many circumstances and conditions as possible.

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30
Q

When is physical trace research useful?

A

• It’s most useful when researches want to test the validity of a hypothesis by observing behaviours and preferences.

31
Q

Under what conditions is participant-observer research useful?

A
  • When studying a small group that is separated from the population as a whole.
  • Little is known about the group
  • When the group’s activities are not generally available to public view
32
Q

simple random sampling:

A

group chosen from an entire population such that every member of the population has an equal and independent chance of being selected in a single sample

33
Q

systematic sampling:

A

a probability sample that is not randomly selected

34
Q

stratified sampling

A

a random sample in which two or more sub- samples are represented according to some predetermined proportion, generally in the same proportion as they exist in the population

35
Q

cluster sampling

A

group selected by using clusters or groupings from a larger population

36
Q

Population:

A

This is the group that you want to study specifically, however it must be defined beforehand what the population criteria will be. These are all the individuals of interest to the researcher.

37
Q

Sampling frame:

A

This is the population that is defined for the purpose of selection in the study. An example might be excluding citizens who are in jail from a city study.

38
Q

Element:

A

each individual who falls within the sampling frame. Example, the students or citizens

39
Q

Mail Advantages and Disadvantages

A

Advantage
o low cost
o no interviewer bias
o best for personal, sensitive topics (where anonymity is preserved)

Disadvantage
o questions must be self-explanatory
o little control over order of questions answered
o response bias (e.g., low response or return rate)

40
Q

Personal Interview Dis and Ad

A

Advantages
o interviewer can motivate interviewees, clarify questions, and monitor order of questions answered
o higher response or return rate than in mail surveys
o possible to use visual aid

disadvantage
o interviewer bias
o much more expensive than mail or telephone surveys
o difficulty reaching interviewees
o potential interviewer effect (respondents say what they think the interviewer wants to hear)

41
Q

Telephone

A

Ad
o easier access to respondents
o quick completion
o tighter supervision of interviewers
o low cost
o possibility of using computer-assisted interviews
Dis
o possible selection bias
o only suitable for short, straightforward surveys
o possible interviewer bias
o telemarketing and donation solicitation, and options to screen calls and to use voice mail have reduced accessibility
o impossible to use visual aids
o less anonymous than mail or web-based surveys

42
Q

Internet

A

o efficient – low cost and speedy
o potential to reach a large number of respondents of diverse backgrounds and from difficult-to-access populations
o can control sequence and branching of questions
o can check for invalid responses easily and consistently

o response bias, just as in other methods
o selection bias — e.g., accessibility to the Internet, websites for special interest groups
o difficulty in controlling how the survey is completed, e.g., alone or in groups, clarity of instructions
o difficulty in checking variables about respondent, (e.g., gender, age) that are of interest to the researcher

43
Q

Open-ended Dis and Ad

A

AD
o More complete answers that may provide reasons for certain attitudes or behaviours
o More likely to discover something unexpected by the researcher

Dis
o More difficult to record and score responses
o Requires more effort from respondents
o Difficult for less-articulate respondents to answer

44
Q

Close-Ended

A

AD
o Easier to code and analyse
o Requires less effort from respondents; no need to articulate answers

Dis
o Reduces expressiveness and spontaneity
o Respondents may have to choose a less-than-preferred response because no alternatives really capture the respondent’s view
o More difficult to discover errors in coding or misinterpretation of questions

45
Q

Acquiescence:

A

A tendency to agree with a question regardless of content.

46
Q

Name several prominent psychologists in history who used single subjects in psychological research

A 
Gustav Fechner: 
Hermann Ebbinghaus: 
Wilhelm Wundt: 
E.B. Titchener: 
I.P. Pavlov: 
BF Skinner:
47
Q

What are the advantages of the single-subject approach?

A
  • More intensive studies of one person. Getting a broader picture
  • Less people required for recruiting
  • Smaller sample sizes can produce more accurate results in terms of variable effect.
  • There does not need to be a control group who doesn’t get potentially beneficial treatment
  • Allows for more flexibility along the way. If a subject is not responding well an adjustment can be made for them. A group participants would have to continue on the same path.
48
Q

What are the disadvantages of the single-subject approach?

A
  • There are certain variables you cannot control or test for in certain single-subject studies
    o For example, you cannot test the effects of abuse a person and see how it goes
  • It is difficult to generalize results to other subjects because of the small number of subjects that are investigated.
49
Q

What is a multiple-baseline design?

A

Research design that introduces different experimental manipulations to see if changes coincide with manipulation.
Three types of manipulation: behaviors, subjects, and settings

50
Q

What is a changing-criterion design?

A

research design that introduces successively more stringent criteria for reinforcement to see if behavior change coincides with the changing criteria.

51
Q

Define true experiment.

A

Research procedure in which the scientist has complete control over all aspects.
- The who, the what, why, when, where, how

52
Q

Factor

A

these are the independent variables in an experiment.

53
Q

Level:

A

in an experiment, this is a particular value of an independent variable

54
Q

Condition:

A

A defined group or treatment in an experiment. The way in which a subject was treated.
Also called treatment

55
Q

Order Effects:

A

Changes in a subjects performance resulting from the position in which a condition appears in an experiment.
- - Order effects are more general and result from warm-up, learning, fatigue, and the like

56
Q

Sequence Effects:

A

changes in subject’s performance resulting from interaction among the conditions themselves.
- Example, lifting light weight before a heavy weight makes the heavy weight feel even heavier. Or vice versa

57
Q

Counterbalancing

A

controlling for order and sequence effects by arranging that subjects experience the various conditions in different orders.

58
Q

Block randomization:

A

control procedure in which the order of conditions is randomized but with each condition being presented once before any condition is repeated.
- BCAD, ADCB. Here each of the 4 conditions is presented once in random order within the two blocks.

59
Q

What is the Latin Square technique?

A

When you do not control for sequence but instead only control for order. This is a control procedure in which each subject experiences each condition in a different order from other subjects.

60
Q

Describe three designs to avoid in research

A

One-group post-test-only design
Non-equivalent control group
One-group pretest-post-test design

61
Q

What are main effects?

A

In a factorial experiment, the effect of one independent variable, averaged over all levels of another independent variable.

62
Q

What are interaction effects?

A

When the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of another independent variable.

63
Q

Antagonistic Interaction:

A

An interaction in which the two independent variables tend to reverse each other’s effects.

64
Q

Synergistic interaction:

A

interaction in which the two independent variables reinforce each other’s effects.

  • Higher level of B enhances the effects of A
  • Upward
65
Q

Ceiling-effect interaction:

A

interaction in which one variable has a smaller effect when paired with higher levels of a second variable.

  • Higher level of B reduces the affects of A.
  • Downward >
66
Q

Quasi experiment:

A

research procedure in which the scientist must select subjects for different conditions from pre- existing groups
- Also referred to as Ex post facto, because they are conducted after the groups have been formed.

67
Q

What is the major weakness of quasi experiments?

A

Cannot control the who, what, where, when, and how.

68
Q

Non-equivalent control-group design:

A

research design having both an experimental and a control group wherein subjects are not randomly assigned to groups.

69
Q

Interrupted time-series design:

A

research design that allows the same group to be compared over time by considering the trend of the data before and after experimental manipulation.

70
Q

Repeated-treatment design:

A

design in which a treatment is withdrawn and then presented a second time.

Major limitation is that the treatment is something that can be withdrawn without causing complications in data analysis.

71
Q

longitudinal study:

A

in developmental research, a study that tests individuals in a single cohort over the course of time.

72
Q

Cross-sequential design:

A

design used to help separate developmental, cohort, and secular effects.

73
Q

Time-lag effect:

A

in a cross-sequential design, the effect resulting from comparing subjects of the same age at different times.

74
Q

What are the essential features of a good scientific report?

A

Clarity:
Brevity:
Felicity:

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