All topics Flashcards
It is the scientific study of
interactions of organisms
with their environment.
Ecology
are the
environment’s non-living concept
Abiotic factors
Abiotic Factors
- Elevational Gradient
- Latitudinal Gradient
- Precipitation Gradient
- Temperature Gradient
- Sunlight Distribution*
is the living
components of the environment.
Biotic Factors
Factors affecting Biotic
Distribution:
- Dispersal Capability
- Biotic Interactions (e.g.,
predation, herbivory,
competition)
is a field of study that investigates species adaptations and how these adaptations help them to survive in their environment
Organismal Ecology
is the deliberate observation of plants and animals in their environment.
Natural History
is grounded in Natural History, but goes beyond observation, seeking to test hypothesis, often via experiments in the field
Field Ecology
studies on the dynamics and factors
affecting populations in a given area
and time.
population ecology
is a group of interbreeding
organisms that are member of same
species living in the same area at the
same time.
population
it is the changes of population in terms of size and density at a given time.
population dynamics
Determine how population change
(population size) through time.
- Birth (b)
- Death (d)
- Immigration (i)
- Emigration (e)
N = ( b – d ) + ( i – e )
open system
N = b – d
closed system
proportion of different age
groups in a population
age structure
produce all offspring in
single reproductive event
Semelparous populations:
produce offspring in series of separate reproductive events
Iteroparous populations:
A biological community consists of
the different species within an area, typically a three-dimensional space, and the interactions within and among these species.
Community Ecology
are interested in the processes driving these interactions and their
consequences
Community ecologists
examines large-scale ecological
issues, ones that often are framed
in terms not of species but rather of
measures such as biomass, energy
flow, and nutrient cycling
Ecosystem Ecology
is an assemblage of
living and non-living elements
within a boundary that forms
functional relationships, maintains
flow of energy and complete the
chemical cycle
Ecosystem
production of organic matter from
simple compounds, drawn from the surrounding
and build into a complex organic material.
Autotrophic:
are organisms that are capable of
producing their own food.
Autotrophs
transformation of primary products
to secondary products from the plants. This is
through the chemical synthesis and decomposition
of organic matter.
Heterotrophic:
are usually predators, while some
are biophages (i.e. animals consuming other animals, plants and other organisms) and saprophages (i.e. organisms feeding on dead
organic matters).
Heterotrophs
photosynthetic (plants) or
chemosynthetic (bacteria).
producers
are herbivores
(plant-eaters) which feed directly and
only on all or part of living plants
Primary consumers
are primary
carnivores (meat-eaters), which feed
only on plant-eating animals
secondary consumers
include large carnivores or omnivores
(plant- and meat-eaters) that feed on
primary and secondary consumers
and/or producers.
Tertiary and higher-level consumers
Heterotrophs that feed on detritus, or dead organic plant and
animal matter, are known as
detritivores.
Two major classes of detritivores:
a. Detritus feeders
b. Decomposers
ingest fragments of dead organisms
and their cast-off parts and organic wastes
Detritus feeders
absorb and endocytose the soluble
nutrients at the cellular level (e.g. bacteria and fungi)
Decomposers
the amount of energy
formed, or rate of production or organic
matter produced that is expressed in:
number or mass per unit area per unit
period of time (i.e. no./kg./ha./yr.).
Productivity
is the rate at which
radiant energy is stored by photosynthetic
activity of the plants.
Primary productivity
is the
total rate of photosynthesis.
Gross primary productivity (GP)
is the rate of
storage in plant tissue after excess of
energy utilization from respiration.
Net primary productivity (NP)
the ability of an
ecosystem to return to equilibrium
following minor external forces or
disturbances such as increase in
temperature, changes in the rainfall
patterns, and soil and water losses.
Stability
the ability of an
ecosystem to return to equilibrium
following major external forces or
disturbances such as long periods
of drought, acidification of soil, salt
intrusion, typhoons, and pest
infestation.
Sustainability
refers to the number,
kinds and variability of species in
an ecosystem. This that more
species have higher biological
diversity, higher stability and higher
sustainability.
Diversity
refers to the benefits
of ecosystem that is distributed
among its beneficiaries, such that
more member organisms have
access to the available resources
means the higher equitability of the
resources to the organisms.
Equitability
is the total
number of genetic characteristics in
the genetic makeup of a species.
Genetic Diversity
refers to the
number of species in an area.
Species Diversity
the variety of
different habitats, communities and
ecological processes
Ecosystems Diversity
consists of all the populations
of all the different species that live together in a particular
area.
ecological community
Interactions between different species in a community are called
interspecific interactions
Different types of interspecific interactions
- competition
- predation
- parasitism
- herbivory
- Symbiosis
- mutualism
- commensalism
Organisms of two species use the
same limited resource and have a negative impact on
each other.
- competition
A member of one species, predator, eats all or part of the body of a member of another species,
prey.
- predation
A long-term, close association between two species in which one benefits, and the other is
harmed
- parasitism
A special case of predation in which the prey species is a plant.
- herbivory
two species live together in a
long-term, intimate association. In
layman’s term, a relationship that benefits both parties. In ecologist-speak, symbiosis include close, lasting relationships with a variety of positive or negative effects on the participants.
Symbiosis
A long-term, close association between two species in which both partners benefit
- mutualism
A long-term, close association between two species in which
one benefits, and the other is unaffected
- commensalism
consist of many interconnected food chains and are more realistic representation of consumption
relationships in ecosystems.
Food webs
is a more intricate and complex form of predator-prey interactions.
Food web
Biomes are divided into two :
Aquatic and Terrestrial
is a region of the earth’s surface and the particular combination of climate, plants, and animals that inhabit it
biome
Abiotic factors that can affect biomes are
fires, floods, droughts, strong winds, and elevation
EARTH’S MAJOR BIOMES:
tundra, boreal forest, temperate rain forest, temperate deciduous forest, temperate grassland, chaparral, desert, savanna, and tropical rain forest
Aquatic Biomes: Zonation
lake and marine zonation
Riparian =
vegetation area
the hemolymph is pumped
through a blood vessel that
empties into the body cavity.
Open Circulatory System
blood of insects are
hemolymph
the heart pumps blood through
vessels that are separate from
the interstitial fluid of the body.
Closed Circulatory System
True or False
“Simple animals” consisting of a
single cell layer such as the (a)
sponge or only a few cell layers
such as the (b) jellyfish do not
have a circulatory system.
Instead, gases, nutrients, and
wastes are exchanged by
diffusion.
True
have the simplest circulatory
systems of the vertebrates: blood flows
unidirectionally from the two-chambered
heart through the gills and then the rest
of the body.
Fish
have two circulatory routes: one for oxygenation of the blood through the lungs and skin, and the other to take oxygen to the rest of the body. The blood is pumped from a three-chambered heart with two atria and a single ventricle.
Amphibians
have two circulatory routes; however,
blood is only oxygenated through
the lungs. The heart is three
chambered, but the ventricles
are partially separated so some
mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated.
Reptiles
have the most efficient heart with four chambers that completely
separate the oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood
Mammals and birds
Parts of Vertebrate Circulatory System
Blood, Heart, Blood vessels
it is a transport medium of the circulation
blood
it is the pumping organ of the system
heart
it is the containers through which the circulation occurs
blood vessels
is the liquid component of blood.
plasma
The plasma component of blood without the
coagulation factors is called the
serum
It is also called as leukocytes (1% of
the blood volume)
WBC
Two General Types of WBC:
Granulocytes (responds during injury)
and Agranulocytes (adaptive immune
response)
also called thrombocytes
PLATELETS
PLATELETS are formed from the disintegration of larger cells called
megakaryocytes
Erythrocytes
RBC
are the shortest-lived, circulating
for only 120 days on average before being replaced.
Erythrocytes
The walls of the heart are made of
cardiac muscle tissue
the inner layer that lines walls
of the heart
Endocardium:
the middle layer consists of the heart muscle cells that make up the middle layer and the bulk of the heart wall
which initiates contractions driving the cardiac cycle.
Myocardium:
the outer layer which prevents
excess expansion or movement of the heart
Epicardium:
The heart is divided into four chambers:
two atria and two ventricles.
branch from
the aorta and surround the outer
surface of the heart like a crown.
Coronary Arteries
to take the
deoxygenated blood back to the
right atrium where the blood will be
re-oxygenated through the
pulmonary circuit. The heart muscle
will die without a steady supply of
blood.
Coronary veins
One complete sequence of pumping
and filling is referred to as the
cardiac cycle
The contraction phase of the cycle is
called _____, and the relaxation
phase is called _______.
systole, diastole
take blood away from the
heart
arteries
are small blood vessels
that carry blood away from the heart
arterioles
is an interwoven
network of capillaries that supplies
an organ.
Capillary Bed
converge again into
venules that connect to minor veins
that finally connect to major veins
that take blood high in carbon
dioxide back to the heart.
capillaries
are blood vessels that
bring blood back to the
heart.
veins
are any small
branches of a vein that
receives oxygen depleted
blood from the capillaries
and returns it to the heart
via venous system.
venules
There are three distinct layers or
tunics that form walls of blood
vessels:
- Tunica Externa (outer layer)
- Tunica Media (Middle layer)
- Tunica Intima (Inner layer)
The elastic connective tissue stretches and supports the
blood vessels.
Outermost layer (Collagen, and Elastic Fibers)
regulate blood flow by altering vascular resistance through
vasoconstriction and vasodilation.
Middle Tunic (Smooth Connective Tissue)
moves blood between
the heart and the lungs.
Pulmonary circulation
moves blood between the
heart and the rest of the body.
Systemic circulation
refers to any part of the systemic circulation in which blood draining from the capillary bed of one structure flows through a larger vessel(s) to supply the capillary bed of another structure before returning to the heart
Portal circulation
is the maintenance of constant
osmotic pressure in the fluids of
an organism by the control of
water and salt concentrations.
Osmoregulation
is the process of
removing nitrogenous
metabolites and other waster
products.
Excretion
is the movement of water
across a selectively permeable
membrane.
Osmosis
Movement occurs when two solutions are separated by the membrane differs in
osmotic pressures or osmolarity
If two solutions have the same osmolarity, it is said to be.
isosmotic
When two solutions differ in osmolarity, the one with the greater concentration of solutes is said to be _______, and the one with lesser solutes is said to be ______.
hyperosmotic, hypoosmotic
An animal can maintain water
balance in two (2) ways:
1.) Osmoconformer
2.) Osmoregulator
organisms that maintain its internal fluid isoosmotic with its surroundings (only marine animals).
Osmoconformer
organisms that expend energy to control water uptake and loss in a
hyperosmotic or hypoosmotic
environment.
Osmoregulator
(“life without water”)
anhydrobiosis
Animals excrete nitrogenous wastes as
ammonia, urea, or
uric acid
Are central to homeostasis because they dispose of metabolic
wastes and control body fluid composition by adjusting the rates
of loss of particular solutes.
Excretory System
Key functions of most excretory systems are:
■ Filtration,
■ Reabsorption,
■ Secretion,
■ Excretion,
Is a network of dead-end tubules, lacking
internal openings, connected to external
openings
protonephridium
consist of tubules that
collect coelomic fluid and produce dilute urine
for excretion.
Metanephridia
The organ found in insects and other
terrestrial arthropods that removes
nitrogenous wastes from hemolymph and
also function in osmoregulation.
Malpighian Tubules
two distinct regions of kidneys:
An outer renal cortex and an inner renal medulla
is the functional unit of the kidney.
nephron
Nephrons consist of a single long tubule and a ball of capillaries called the _____ (filters
the blood ) which is surrounded by the ______.
glomerulus; Bowman’s capsule
Each nephron is supplied with blood by an
afferent arteriole
The capillaries converge as they leave the glomerulus forming an
efferent arteriole
Urine formation begins in the renal, which filters the blood.
corpuscle (glomerulus & Bowman’s capsule)
is a treatment that filters and purifies the blood using a machine.
Dialysis
There are two (2) types of dialysis:
Hemodialysis; Peritoneal dialysis
Your blood is put
through a filter outside your body, cleaned,
and then returned to you; done either at a
dialysis facility or at home.
Hemodialysis
Your blood is
cleaned inside your body; typically done at
home.
Peritoneal dialysis
One hormone important in regulating water balance is
antidiuretic
hormone (ADH)
it is the process by
which an organism replicate
themselves.
Reproduction
it is the
progressive changes in size,
shape, and function by which its
genetic potentials are translated
into functioning mature systems.
Development
The generation of new individuals without the
fusion of egg and sperm.
Asexual reproduction
The formation of offspring by the fusion of
haploid gametes to form a diploid
Sexual reproduction
In most asexual animals, reproduction relies
entirely on .
mitotic cell division
It increases genetic variation among
offspring by generating unique
combinations of genes inherited from two
parents.
Sexual reproduction
Animals can reproduce asexually through:
- Fission
- Budding
- Fragmentation
- Parthenogenesis
also called binary fission
occurs in prokaryotic
microorganisms and in some
invertebrate, multicelled
organisms
Fission
occurs commonly in some
invertebrate animals such as Hydra and
corals in which new individuals arise
from outgrowths of existing ones
(parent’s body).
Budding
occurs in many sea stars,
sponges, cnidarians, polychaete annelids,
and tunicate. The breaking of the body into
two parts with subsequent regeneration
(the regrowth of lost body parts).
Fragmentation
occurs in certain species of
bees, wasps, ants, water fleas, rotifers,
aphids, and stick insects. An egg develops
into a complete individual without being
fertilized. The resulting offspring can be
either haploid or diploid.
Parthenogenesis
reproduces as both a male and a female,
any two individuals can mate.
hermaphroditism
an individual
reverses its sex during its lifetime
sequential hermaphroditism
______ reproduction occurs when conditions are
favorable, whereas _____ reproduction occurs
during times of environmental stress.
Asexual; sexual
Sexual reproduction starts with the combination
(union) of a sperm and an egg in a process called
fertilization
Fertilization often mediated by:
environmental cues
(temperature or day length), pheromones, or
courtship behavior.
individuals clustered in the same area release their
gametes into the water at the same time, a process
known as spawning.
External Fertilization
The release of the reproductive material may be
triggered by
water temperature or the length of
daylight.
can result in a greater mixture of
the genes within a group, leading to higher genetic
diversity and a greater chance of species survival in a
hostile environment (e.g., Sponges).
Broadcast spawning
“courtship” behavior has two (2) important
benefits:
- It allows mate selection
- Increases the probability of successful
fertilization by triggering the release of both
sperm and eggs.
No matter how fertilization occurs, the mating animals may make use of.
pheromones
It typically requires sophisticated
reproductive systems, including
copulatory organs that deliver sperm and
receptacles for their storage and transport
to ripe eggs.
Internal fertilization
uterus has 3 layers:
Endometrium
Myometrium
Perimetrium
is a muscular but elastic chamber
that is the site for insertion of the penis and
deposition of sperm during copulation.
vagina
is a collective term for the external female.
vulva
encloses
and protects the rest of the vulva.
labia majora
The vaginal opening and the separate opening of
the urethra are located within a cavity bordered by a
pair of slender skin folds, the
labia minora
partly covers
the vaginal opening in humans at birth, and usually
until sexual intercourse or vigorous physical activity
ruptures it.
hymen
located at the upper
intersection of the labia minora, consists
of a short shaft supporting a rounded
glans, or head, covered by a small hood
of skin, the prepuce.
clitoris
are present in both
sexes but normally produce milk only
in females.
mammary glands
In most mammalian species, the
male’s external reproductive organs
are the.
scrotum and penis
The internal male reproductive organs consist:
- Gonads - that produce both
sperm and reproductive hormones - Accessory glands - that secrete
products essential to sperm
movement - Ducts - that carry the sperm and
glandular secretions
consist of many
highly coiled tubes surrounded by
several layers of connective tissue.
The male gonads, or testes
(singular, testis),
where sperm form.
seminiferous tubules,
scattered
between the seminiferous tubules,
produce testosterone and other
androgens.
Leydig cells
three (3) sets of accessory
glands
Seminal vesicles
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral glands
contains the urethra, as
well as three cylinders of spongy
erectile tissue, which is derived from
modified veins and capillaries.
human penis
A male usually ejaculates about ____mL of semen, with each milliliter (mL) containing about _____million sperm.
2-5 mL; 50-130 million sperm
the production of sperm
and eggs, takes place through the process
of meiosis.
gametogenesis
The production of sperm is called
________, and the production of eggs is called ________.
spermatogenesis; oogenesis
are haploid cells, consisting of a
flagellum as a tail, a neck that contains
the cell’s energy-producing (provide ATP
for movement of the tail) mitochondria,
and a head that contains the haploid
nucleus (genetic material).
Sperm
are deposited during gestation
and are present at birth through the
beginning of adolescence, but in an
inactive state.
stem cells
two (2) closely linked
reproductive cycles in human females.
menstrual cycle and uterine cycle
average 28 days in
length (although cycles vary, ranging
from about 20 to 40 days).
menstrual cycle
in heat
estrus
After about ____ cycles, a woman
undergoes menopause.
500
the egg is protected by a
layer of extracellular matrix consisting mainly
of glycoproteins called the
zona pellucida.
When a sperm binds to the zona
pellucida, a series of biochemical events, called the
acrosomal reactions,
The development of multi-cellular organisms begins from a single-celled ______, which undergoes rapid cell division to form the ______.
zygote; blastula
forms the blastocyst in the next
stage of development.
blastula
is a formative process by which the
three germ layers, which are precursors of all
embryonic tissues, and the axial orientation are
established in embryos.
gastrulation
*The three (3) germ layers are the
endoderm, ectoderm
and mesoderm
gives rise to the nervous system and the
epidermis.
ectoderm
gives rise to the muscle cells and
connective tissue in the body.
mesoderm
gives rise to columnar cells found in the
digestive system and many internal organs.
endoderm
Gastrulation leads to the formation of the three germ layers that
give rise to the different organs in the animal body through the
process called
organogenesis.
In vertebrates, one of the primary steps during organogenesis is the
formation of the neural system.
