All Sociologists Flashcards
Aldridge
Social constructionist
For its followers, scientology is a religion, despite several govs denying it legal status as a religion and sought to ban it
This shows that definitions of religion can be contested and are influenced by this who have power to define the situation
Abercrombie
Criticises Marx Religion does not necessarily function effectively as ideology to control the population. In pre capitalist society, while Christianity was a major element of ruling class ideology, it only had limited impact on the peasantry.
Althusser
Religion is promoted by the bourgeoise in order to pass on the dominant ideological state apparatus
Armstrong
As Catholicism and Orthodox Judaism forbid women priests - this is proof of marginalisation.
Early religions placed women at the centre (mother goddesses, fertility, priesthood) yet the rise in monotheistic religions were mostly male
Bauman
Postmodern
There is a ‘crisis of meaning’ in our society
Secularisation led to a decline in meta narratives
Therefore new age movements have more of a place now than ever - the vacuum is being filled by new and diverse types of religiosity
Bellah - golden age
As our postmodern society is individualistic, people do not feel the social pressures of the ‘golden age’ to attend church
Bloch
Marxist
Religion is an expression of ‘the principle of hope’, our dreams of a better life, or utopia.
Images of utopia can deceive people with promises of rewards in heaven.
However, this may help people to see what needs to be changed in this world - if combined with effective political leadership, can bring about social change
Berger
Pentecostalism acts as the ‘functional equivalent’ to the Protestant ethic
Beyer
The impact of globalisation:
- marginalisation: religion no longer in politics or public life
- particularism: religion used by groups who feel threatened by globalisation - sense of identity (fundamentalism)
- universalism: results in understanding of common values between religions (religious environmentalism, protecting a god created world)
Brown
Women’s attendance in church has declined due to the pressures of home, work, and family emotions as a result of their triple shift
Bruce - loss of importance
Science and rational explanations are undermining religion, with less place in our postmodern society
Religion becomes less important as some of its previous functions are taken over (the moral support from priests now comes from therapists)
Bruce - ethnicity
Cultural transition
To south Asians who immigrated to the uk, their religion acted as a support mechanism, allowing them to establish their faiths and share their culture
Bruce - social change
Studies the relationship between religion and social change, comparing the role of religiously inspired protest movements in America: civil rights and the new Christian Right
Comte
Science is the final stage in the development of human thought - modern society would become dominated by science, not religion
Daly
Feminist
Christianity is a patriarchal myth, it eliminates other goddess religions
Crockett
In 1850, more than 40% of adults in Britain attended church on Sundays
This contributed to the view of the 19th century as the ‘golden age’ of religion
Bruce - NRMs
Men are more interested in NRMs that advocate elitist knowledge Women are more interested in new science, ecology, and spirituality Cults are primarily middle class as they fulfil spiritual needs for people who have little financial pressure
Engels
Marxist
Although religion inhibits change by disguising inequality, it can also change the status quo and encourage social change
Davie - against secularisation
Believing without belonging
People may not attend church because of their lifestyle, even though they believe in god
Church attendance does not tell anything about belief
Eisenstaedt
Contradicts weber
Capitalism occurred in catholic countries like Italy way before the Protestant reformation
Gramsci
Domination of ruling class ideology as hegemony - no one questions common sense, therefore no one questions their right to rule
Heelas
Postmodern
religion fills the void that comes with lack of community in our society
Holm
The devaluation of women in religion:
- segregation by gender
- women’s participation restricted: not allowed to preach, participate in rituals etc
- taboos about menstruation, pregnancy, and childbirth as polluting
Davie - ethnic minorities
Identification with a religious organisation is important to those from west and South Asia in the UK because it gives a sense of cultural identity and a feeling of belonging
El Saadawi
Religion is not the direct cause of women’s subordination
Male domination and the interpretation of religion leads to the oppression of women
Rules regarding sexuality and dress are not associated with religion, but with men’s increasing control over it
Women had a high status in ancient religion
Islam developed to be patriarchal - the men used religion to control women
Glock and Stark
The gender difference in NRMs is because deprivation (social, physical, mental) is disproportionately experienced by women
Greeley
Caring for the family increases religiosity
Johal
In a multi-faith society, religious identity has become of key importance to members of ethnic minorities
Kautsky
Criticises Weber
He overestimates the role of ideas and underestimates economic factors in bringing capitalism into being
Capitalism preceded rather than followed Calvinism
Lehmann
How Christianity developed globally:
Christianity accompanied colonialism and was imposed on indigenous populations by force.
It gained a popular following: 80 million Pentecostalists
Pentecostalism has an ability to blend and plug into local beliefs, it hasn’t necessarily replaced old beliefs but creates new religious forms
Lenin
Religion as ideology The ruling class use religion cynically to manipulate the masses and keep them from attempting to overthrow the ruling class by creating a 'mystical fog' that obscures reality
Lyon
Postmodern
Disneyfication of religion - it has become too diluted and therefore has lost its integrity with its lack of commitment and obligation
Lowy
Neo Marxist
Questions Marx’s view that religion always legitimises social inequality
Sees liberation theology as an example of religiously inspired social change
Lyotard
Postmodern - the world is not defined by a metanarrative due to explanations from science
Life is now uncertain, fast paced, and chaotic
Organised religion has become less influential
Maduro
Neo marxist
“Religion is often one of the main available channels to bring about a social revolution”
Marshall
Agrees with Weber
Both material and cultural factors need to be present for capitalism to emerge
Martin
Questions he ‘golden age of religion’ in the nineteenth century
As the church was the focal point of communities, people attended church in masses for social reasons rather than for expressing their belief
Marx
“Religion is the opium of the people”
It dulls the pain of alienation and oppression, giving a purpose to their hard work
Social change is inhibited due to this state of ‘false consciousness’, continuing their oppression
Miller
Women have a greater interest in religions and a stronger personal commitment to it
Modood
Most ethnic minorities in the UK are more religious than white groups
Pakistani Muslims in the UK identified themselves primarily as Muslim rather than British or Pakistani
Many young Muslims have a deeper knowledge of Islam than their parents - a larger amount of young people agree with sharia law
Parsons - secularisation
Although the church may have lost its functions and become disengaged from the state and politics, religion can still be significant in everyday life and encourage shared values
Saeed
Found evidence for a decline in religious practice among Asians in the UK
Nanda
Hinduism explaining prosperity of Indian middle class (85% Hindu) the rise of a new Hindu 'ultra nationalism' Globalisation: it pharmaceuticals, biotechnology industries - suggests they'd be less religious This isn't the case, with urban middle class educated Indians becoming more religious
Simone de Beauvior
Religion is exploitative and oppressive
Images of gender in western religion deceive women into thinking they’re equal when they’re not
Women are portrayed as ‘nearer to god’ by religious imagery - this promotes the idea that if women suffer they will receive equality in heaven
This results in women submitting to inferiority in order to gain in the afterlife
Simone de Beauvoir more
Religion exists to provide an explanation for women's second class status The teachings of religions, backed up by divine authority, supports male dominance Women are assigned the special position of 'mother' which blinds women to the inequality in religion and society
Tawney
Criticises Weber
Technological change caused capitalism
The bourgeoisie adopted Calvinist beliefs to legitimate their pursuit of economic gain
Wilson
Bums on Pews - church attendance, and he number of baptisms and church marriages are decreasing with time
This evidence proves that society has become secular
Watson
We need to be careful to not make sweeping statements about how religions treat women - veiling can be liberating
Weber
Correctly predicted desacralisation in his theory of disenchantment, with magic and myth less important in postmodern society
Woodhead - evangelical
Feminist
Respects the roles in the home - being evangelical can be empowering - men are taught to respect women, as they believe in gender neutral love from god
White (Ellen)
7th day Adventists
Many NRMs are established by women
Woodhead - church’s view of women
The exclusion of women from the catholic priesthood is evidence of the church’s deep unease about the emancipation of women generally
Woodhead - NRMs
Women join NRMs to express religiosity and individuality, rejecting traditional conservative sexist views of the established church
Woodhead - veil
Feminist
The veil is a symbol against oppression, allowing women not to be objectified for their looks - expresses the postmodern view of religion as a sense of identity
Yinger
Functional definition of religion
Religion defined as the functions it provides for individuals: answering ultimate questions about the meaning of life, and what happens when we die
Butler
cultural hybridity, taking the best of British and own culture - make own identity
Davie - women
women’s proximity to birth and death bring them closer to the ultimate questions
Gross
Post patriarchal buddism is popular with both genders
Wallis
Categorises the NRMs into three groups: world accommodating which do not have an opinion on wider society, world affirming which accepts and uses society’s norms and values, and world rejecting which is highly critical of the outside world.
Barker
points out how difficult it is to categorise NRMs due to the great diversity among them.
She distinguishes them by the traditions they come from, yet explains the problem of this in that some sects and cults are more developed and established than others, showing that S+Bs cycle is relevant in showing problems
Popper
Science should aim to falsify their theory through rigorous testing - possibility that things with change(all swans are white)
Science is not completely scientific as few scientists rigorously test it in this way
He rejects verification ism in favour of falsification ism as the defining feature of science and argues that on this definition, much sociology is unscientific, but that a scientific sociology is possible in principle
Merton
science is important, supported by various parts of social system (ed, health, tec)
Kuhn
Science has Paradigms - difficult for scientists to go against theories
Scientific revolution - shift in way of thinking, scientists now follow this person’s ideas
Not scientific - different paradigms, ways of thinking - unscientific
He argues that sociology can only become a science once all sociologists adopt a single shared paradigm
Mannheim
One sided world views - ideological and utopian thought
Utopian - equality and getting rid of oppression
Evident in authorities and government in developed societies
Gouldner
Value free sociology is impossible and undesirable. Why would we want to be scientific? There’s nothing wrong with subjectivity
Baudrillard
People have a sense of identity out the products they consume - sold not just for function, but associated with different lifestyles and personalities. People pick-and-mix media imagery in building identity.
Strinati
Boundaries are blurred between the traditionally ‘high’ and ‘low’ culture. Mixes of characteristics that would not commonly be together
Casanova
Liberation theology played an important part in resisting state terror and bringing about democracy in Latin American countries, most of which now have democratically elected governments
Catholicism continues to defend democracy and human rights, achieved by liberation theology, despite becoming more conservative
