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GeoSci 110 Final > All Review Cards > Flashcards

All Review Cards Flashcards

1
Q

Darwin’s Mechanisms for Natural Selection

A
  1. ) Populations are variable
  2. ) variants that are successful leave more viable offspring
  3. ) Change will appear over time
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2
Q

Darwin’s Important Claims

A
  1. ) all living things share a common ancestor

2. ) species on Earth evolve from a natural process

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3
Q

Evidence for Evolution (4)

A
  1. ) Fossil Record
  2. ) Classification and biography
  3. ) Morphology and development
  4. ) DNA (Genetics)
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4
Q

Main questions debated by early scholars concerning fossils

A
  1. ) Are they organic material?
  2. ) How did they get there?
  3. ) Did they form in the rock or did the rock form around them?
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5
Q

6 Verifiable Predictions of Evolutionary Theory

A
  1. ) Because there are fossil remains of ancient life, we should be able for find some evidence for evolutionary change
  2. ) We should be able to find some cases of speciation in the fossil record with one line of descent diving in to two or more.
  3. ) We should be able to find examples of species that link together major groups suspected to have common ancestry.
  4. ) We should expect that species show genetic variation for many traits.
  5. ) We should find imperfect adaptations
  6. ) We should see natural selection occur in nature
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6
Q

Glossopetrae

A

“Tongue Stones” ; Steno dissected a shark and found that these stones were actually shark teeth (proving that fossils were once living and therefore organic in origin)

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7
Q

Principle of Original Horizontality

A

strata originally deposited horizontally or nearly so; departures indicate that strata have moved after their formation

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8
Q

Faunal Succession

A

based on the observation that sedimentary rock strata contains fossilized flora/fauna

  • these fossils succeed each other vertically in a specific, reliable order that can be identified over wide horizontal distances
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9
Q

Leonardo da Vinci (objections to Diluvialism)

A
  1. ) some shells were too fragile to have traveled great distances
  2. ) some fossils in strata appeared to be in living positions and resembled living communities
  3. ) multiple layers of fossil-rich strata separated by unfossiliferous strata (multiple depositional events)
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10
Q

William “Strata” Smith

A
  • coined the term ‘faunal succession’

- made the first geological map of England when he was commissioned to build the canals

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11
Q

Biostratigraphy

A

the use of fossils and how fossils resemble change between sedimentary layers to date rocks

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12
Q

Robert Hooke

A
  • argued for the organic origin of fossils
  • suggested that fossils were the remain of extinct organisms and that species have a ‘limited lifespan’
  • said that fossils could be used to correlate strata (biostratigraphy!)
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13
Q

Principle of Original Lateral Continuity

A

strata originally deposited continuously; if interrupted by gaps in the same strata it indicates rocks have been removed after they’ve formed

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14
Q

3 Properties of an “Index Fossil”

A
  1. ) easily identifiable
  2. ) Geographically and Environmentally widespread
  3. ) Short stratigraphic range (only exist for a brief amount of time)
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15
Q

3 Types of Unconformities

A
  1. ) Angular
  2. ) Disconformity
  3. ) Nonconformity
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16
Q

Alcide d’Orbigny

A
  • believed that new species were being created in the wake of each catastrophe (each extinction event)
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17
Q

Georges Cuvier’s Significance of Unconformities

A

catastrophes are what explains unconformities and extinctions

  • life moves toward its perfect state with each catastrophe
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18
Q

Modern Doctrine of Actualism

A

modern geology is a combination of gradualism and catastrophism

  • only assumption that is made today is that the principles of nature have been uniform through time
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19
Q

Charles Lyell

A
  • wrote “Principles of Modern Geology”
  • believed that the present is the key to the past and that there is unconformity in nature
  • advocated for GRADUALISM not CATASTROPHISM
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20
Q

Disconformity

A

flatline sediments resting on other flatline rocks and visible erosion

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21
Q

Cross-Cutting Relations

A
  • molten rock can intrude into older, pre-existing rocks
  • molten rocks can enclose older pre-existing rock
  • relative timing (age) can be determined by this relation
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22
Q

Uniformitarianism

A

using present processes to understand the past in recorded rocks

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23
Q

Unconformities

A

a surface erosion and/or non-deposition separating two rock bodies

  • represents missing time
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24
Q

Rock Cycle

A

Earth’s change is a cyclical cycle

  • the formation of new rocks balanced by the destruction of old
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25
Q

Catastrophism

A

events in the past occurred suddenly and by different mechanisms than those occurring today

  • these catastrophes are separated by long periods of stability
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26
Q

Georges Cuvier

A
  • used comparative anatomy to prove extinction

- advocated for catastrophism

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27
Q

Nonconfomity

A

sedimentary deposited on top of one another

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28
Q

Sedimentary Rocks

A
  • made of sediment and created by the erosion of preexisting rocks
  • fossils usually found here
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29
Q

Darwin’s 5 Observations while sailing on the HMS Beagle

A
  1. ) Fossils are species that are now extinct
  2. ) the difference between species and the variation of species is sometimes unclear
  3. ) Geographic variation and species replacement
  4. ) different variations on different islands
  5. ) South American affinities of Galapagos Island populations
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30
Q

Alfred Russel Wallace

A
  • spent months traveling the Amazon gathering species (But burned when ship went up in flames)
  • discovered the Malay Archipelago is a mixing of Asiatic and Australian fauna and flora
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31
Q

Stabilizing Selection

A

selection against the extremes in a population

i. e. timing of spawning, mating calls in frogs, flowering
- can decrease varaibility

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32
Q

Who wrote the first papers on Natural Selection?

A

Darwin and Wallace

  • Darwin gets the most credit even though they came to the same conclusion
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33
Q

No Selection / Drift

A

no differential reproduction, all forms are equally successful

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34
Q

Fecundity

A

the ability to produce and abundance of offspring

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35
Q

Origin of Species

A

Darwin’s Book

  • provided the central tenants for the theory of evolution by natural selection
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36
Q

Genotype

A

the blueprint for building and maintaining and organism

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37
Q

Phenotype

A

the outward manifestation of a genotype

  • identifiable physical characteristics
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38
Q

Ecophenotype

A

morphological changes caused by varying environmental-nutritional conditions rather than genetic differences

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39
Q

Directional Selection

A

the selection where a single phenotype is favored (allele frequency shifts in one direction over time)

  • i.e. the color of desert mice
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40
Q

Thomas Malthus’s “Principle of Population”

A

predicts that a population size increases at a geometric rate but there must be some sort of check to prevent insane amounts

  • Chess Board multiplying example
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41
Q

Three Requirements for Natural Selection

A
  1. ) Variation: cannot be a exact replica of their parents
  2. ) Inheritance: must inherit characteristics from both parents
  3. ) Differential Reproduction: the most successful offspring will produce the most offspring in the future

**4.) Overpopulation (not necessarily one of the main requirements but it is an important factor)

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42
Q

Allele

A

a variant form of any given gene

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43
Q

Disruptive/Diversifying Selection

A

the selection for the extremes within a population

  • the color of fur in Himalayan rabbits
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44
Q

Types of Natural Selection

A
  1. ) Stabilizing
  2. ) Diversifying/Disruptive
  3. ) Directional
  4. ) No Selection / Drift
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45
Q

What is an individual’s ‘fitness’?

A

the ability of an individual to reproduce and contribute to the next generation

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46
Q

Dominant Allele

A

expressed even when heterozygous

47
Q

Mitosis

A

normal cell division

  • in the parent cell, each chromosome is copied and 2 daughter cells are produced
48
Q

Which tenants of Mendelian Genetics are often broken?

A
  • one gene codes for one trait

- Some dominant and some recessive alleles

49
Q

Meoisis

A

reproductive cell division;

  • in the parent cell, each chromosome is copied and 4 egg or sperm are produced (unpaired chromosomes)
50
Q

Biological Species Concept

A

a group of inter-breeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups

51
Q

Chromatids

A
  • the two threadlike strands which a chromosome divides longitudinally during a cell division
  • humans have 46
52
Q

Three Reasons Darwin Focused on Artificial Selection

A
  1. ) Natural selection process is too slow
  2. ) Artificial selection results in dramatic changes
  3. ) Artificial selection demonstrates inheritance
53
Q

Principle of Independent Assortment

A

each allele pair behaves independently of other allele pairs

54
Q

Chromosomes

A
  • carries the genetic information
  • found in the nucleus
  • made up of chromatids
55
Q

Heterozygous

A

the alleles are different

56
Q

Locus

A

a fixed point on a chromosome

  • i.e. position of a gene or a marker
57
Q

Darwin’s Dillema

A
  1. ) What is the source of this variability?

2. ) How does variability work?

58
Q

Principle of Segregation

A

each parent contributes one randomly chosen allele to each offspring

59
Q

Five Tenants of Mendelian Genetics

A
  1. ) Phenotypic traits are determined by unites of heredity (genes)
  2. ) One gene codes for one trait
  3. ) Some alleles are dominant and others are recessive
  4. ) Each parent contributes one randomly chose allele to each offspring
  5. ) Each pair of alleles (genes) behaves independently of other allele pairs
60
Q

Recessive Allele

A

only expressed when homozygous

61
Q

Blending Hypothesis

A

predicts that each hereditary factor is permanently diluted in a hybrid

** PROVEN TO BE INCORRECT BY MENDEL THROUGH DISCRETE UNITS**

62
Q

What does it mean that DNA Replication is ‘Semi-Conservative’?

A

DNA replication creates DNA molecules that are half old and half new (preserving part of each original strand)

63
Q

Episistasis

A

when one gene masks the phenotypic effect of another gene

64
Q

Nucleotide Bases and Their Pairings

A

ATCG

A <=> T
C<=> G

65
Q

What are some commonly observed ‘Non-Mendelian’ characteristics of Genes or Traits?

A
  1. ) Incomplete Dominance between alleles (red flower + white flower = pink flower)
  2. ) Co-Dominance of alleles (A and B blood types are fully expressed in AB)
  3. ) More than 2 alleles for one gene in a population
  4. ) one gene may have multiple effects (i.e. albinism = associated with cross eyed and larger body type)
  5. ) One trait may result from input of multiple genes (milk production is controlled by several genes)
  6. ) Genes may influence each other (coat color in labs is controlled by two genes)
66
Q

What determines the function of a protein?

A

the sequence of amino acids determines how the chain unfolds, how the chain unfolds determines the structure, the structure determines the function

67
Q

What are ‘immortal genes’?

A

short portions of the sequence of a protein found in all domains of life

68
Q

What is translation?

A

the process of translating the sequence of an mRNA molecule to a sequence of amino acids during a protein synthesis

69
Q

Roles of Different Enzymes (Helicase, Primase, DNA Polymerase, Ligase)

A

Helicase: unzips the paired DNA strands forming a replication fork

Primase: binds leading strand and synthesizes an RNA primer completely to the DNA template (marks the starting point for DNA synthesis)

DNA Polymerase: synthesizes DNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction

Ligase: DNA ‘glue’ that links Okazaki fragments together

70
Q

Okazaki Fragments

A
  • used on the lagging strand so that the polymerase can add to the nucleotides in the 5’ to 3’ end
  • this process ends up with a bunch of little fragments that are not all connected
  • all eventually put together by DNA ligrase
  • Primase will come in to switch out the RNA with new DNA
71
Q

Central Dogma

A

the idea that DNA replication begins by being transcribed to mRNA and then is translated to proteins (DNA => RNA => Proteins)

72
Q

DNA Transcription

A

the process by which DNA code is turned in to messenger RNA

T is switched out for U

73
Q

RNA Polymerase

A

similar to DNA polymerase; it is used to make mRNA strand by reading DNA strand

74
Q

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

A

the type of RNA that carries the message of DNA to be transcribed and turned in to a specific protein

75
Q

mRNA Codons

A

RNA units that are triplet nucleotide base

76
Q

What are Homeobox (Hox) Genes?

A

Homeobox genes are a large family of genes that direct the formation of body parts during early embryonic development

  • encode proteins that regulate gene expression in multicellular organisms
77
Q

Vestigial Structures

A

degenerate or underdeveloped;

reduced in size and function by natural selection because they are no longer required

78
Q

Atavastic Features

A

an evolutionary “throwback”, only occurs occasionally within a species

79
Q

Pseudogenes

A

‘dead’ genes that no longer function

80
Q

Prokaryotes

A

bacteria and archae;

  • small cell size
  • DNA is in a circular loop
  • organelles are absent

NO NUCLEUS

81
Q

Eukaryotes

A

protists, plants, animals

  • large cell size
  • DNA is in chromosomes in nucleus
  • organelles are located in mitochondria and chloroplasts

NUCLEUS

82
Q

Homologous Structure

A

structurally similar adapted to serve different functions, reflects shared inheritance and common ancestry

83
Q

Analogous Structure

A

structurally dissimilar features adapted to serve the same function

  • does NOT reflect common ancestry
84
Q

Convergent Evolution

A

the process whereby organisms not closely related independently evolve similar traits as a result of having to adapt to similar environments or ecological niches

85
Q

Three Domains of Life

A
  1. ) Bacteria
  2. ) Archaea
  3. ) Eukarya
86
Q

Sexual Dimorphism

A

differences in morphology between male and female members of a species

  • can include physical traits as well as behavioral
87
Q

What is sexual selection?

A

differential success in reproduction

  1. ) Mate Choices (power to charm females)
  2. ) Intra-Sexual Selection (power to conquer other males in battle)
88
Q

How does sexual selection perpetuate sexual dimorphism?

A
  • females choose the males with distinctive traits
  • offspring inherit exaggerated trait (males) or the preference for that trait (females)
  • selection reinforces both trait and preference
89
Q

Factors involved in evolution of typical sex roles

A
  1. ) relative investment in reproduction (usually greater in females and makes them more choosey)
  2. ) Reproductive potential (usually greater for males so they’re more aggressive and competitive)
90
Q

Correlation between levels of aggression and disparity in number of mates

A

the greater the disparity among males in terms of number of mates results in a greater level of aggression

91
Q

Batesian Mimicry

A

when a palatable (tasty) species mimics a toxic species to deceive predators

  • palatable mimics only occur in areas where the unpalatable species occur
92
Q

Why is tinkering a good analogy for natural selection rather than engineering?

A

natural selection has no plan, whichever works best will produce more offspring

  • modifies what already exists, doesn’t create from scratch
93
Q

Exaptation

A

the process by which pre-existing traits and structures adapted to serve one function are all co-opted to serve a new function

  • i.e. wings on a dragonfly
94
Q

Pre-Zygotic Isolation

A

union of egg and sperm never occurs because gametes never encounter one another

95
Q

Post-Zygotic Isolation

A

egg and sperm encounter one another but the zygote is either not viable or gives rise to individuals that cannot reproduce or have very low fitness

96
Q

Pre-Zygotic Mechanisms for Reproductive Isolation

A
  1. ) Geographic Isolation (existences of geographic barrier)
  2. ) Gametic Isolation (occurs when incompatibility in gametes (egg and sperm) do not permit fertilization)
  3. ) Mechanical Isolation (male parts don’t fit female parts)
  4. ) Temporal Isolation (inter-species differences in timing of reproduction)
  5. ) Behavioral Isolation (can occur when mating displays and courtship rituals become intertwined with reproductive act)
  6. ) Ecological Preferences and mating Isolation (occurs when environmental preferences reduce the frequency of interbreeding)
97
Q

Post-Zygotic Mechanisms for Reproductive Isolation

A
  1. ) Zygote Morality (occurs when a successfully fertilized egg begins development but fails to complete)
  2. ) Hybrid Inviability (gametes fuse, development progresses but offspring cannot survive to adulthood)
  3. ) Hybrid Sterility (gametes fuse, development progresses and offspring survive to adulthood but cannot reproduce)
  4. ) Low Hybrid Fitness (gametes fuse, development progresses and offspring survive to adulthood with the ability to reproduce but their offspring will have very low fitness in the wild)
98
Q

3 Geographic Models of Speciation

A
  1. ) Allopatry (occurs when populations become completely, physically separated from one another by geographic barriers)
  2. ) Parapatry (separated not by geographical areas but an extreme change in habitat)
  3. ) Sympatry (occurs when there is no spatial separation but reproductive isolation still occurs)
99
Q

Ring Species

A

two populations that do not interbreed are living in the same region but they are connected by a geographic ring of population that do interbreed

100
Q

Pairwise Evolution

A

involving just two particular species

101
Q

Coevolution

A

two or more unrelated species adapting to each other

102
Q

Diffuse Coevolution

A

involving multiple species

103
Q

Symbiosis

A

interaction between two different organisms living in close physical association

  1. ) Commensalism (host is not affected)
  2. ) Mutualism (host benefits)
  3. ) Parasitism (host is not harmed)
104
Q

Miller and Urey Experiments

A
  • demonstrated the basic blocks of life (20 amino acids) can be synthesized from inorganic molecules
  • amino acids are common place in our solar system
105
Q

Stromatolites

A

oldest fossils on Earth (not actual organisms but were mats of cyanobacteria)

106
Q

Architarchs

A
  • oldest Eukaryotes (found in the proterozoic)

- primitive forms of marine algae

107
Q

What is the Ediacara Fauna?

A

assemblage of soft bodied marine animals found in neoproterozoic aged rocks

108
Q

“Cambrian Explosion”

A

all major phyla with hard parts suddenly appear (explosion of life; specifically marine)

  • trilobites
109
Q

Possible Mechanisms for Cambrian Explosion

A
  • intense chemical weathering of rocks supersaturated the oceans with ions which marine organisms use to grow shells
  • change in the seawater chemistry to do continental denudation
  • active predators may have made organisms form protective shells
  • maybe a rise in oxygen levels
110
Q

Ordovician Land Plants

A
  • seedless (used spores), non-vascular mosses

- no system for transporting nutrients and water

111
Q

Silurian Land Plants

A
  • seedless plants with a primitive vascular system
112
Q

Devonian Land Plants

A

Lycopods!

  • seedless, vascular plants, cool swamps

First Gymnosperms: naked seed plants meaning the seed is not covered by the ovary (allowed the move from wet conditions)

113
Q

How did the evolution of large plants with roots affect global carbon cycle and climate?

A

roots pump CO2 into soils and thereby enhance chemical breakdown of silicate minerals which pulls CO2 atmosphere levels DOWN

114
Q

First Land Animals

A
  • silurian

BUGS

  • trigonotarbids

GeoSci 110 Final (1 decks)

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