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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
0
Q

Systematics

A

Scientific discipline focused on classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationship

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1
Q

Phylogeny

A

The evolutionary history of species/group of related species

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2
Q

Molecular systematics

A

Scientists specialising in systematics look at DNA/genome to discover which species are closely related

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3
Q

Fossil Record

A

Each layer of strata represents a period of time (the deeper the strata, the older the fossil) these strata show fossils from each period which can give an insight as to which species went through which evolutions. Also species that are now extinct.

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4
Q

Analogy

A

Similarities between species that occur through convergent evolution

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5
Q

Convergent evolution

A

Two entirely unrelated species evolving into very similar looking species, species in similar environments and niches are often forced to come to the same evolutionary conclusion

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6
Q

Homoplasies

A

Similar molecular sequence/structure between two unrelated species that has evolved independently

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7
Q

Binomial

A

Two part name, always Latin, always italics. Consists of Genus and specific epithet. Also called binomen

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8
Q

Hierarchical classification

A

Groups species into increasingly broader taxonomic categories

  • Domain
  • Kingdom
  • Phylum
  • Class
  • Order
  • Family
  • Genus
  • Species
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9
Q

Domains of Life

A

Archaea - prokaryotic, lives in extremes

Bacteria - prokaryotic

Eukaryotic - includes kingdom plantae, fungi, protists and animalia

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10
Q

Taxon

A

A named taxonomic unit at any level of classification e.g fungi, mammalia, loxodonta etc

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11
Q

Clade

A

Group of species that includes an ancestral species and ALL of its descendants
Also known as a monophyletic group

Paraphyletic group is an ancestral species with some of its descendants

Polyphyletic groups don’t share the same ancestor

Cladistics (type of systematics) is the study of clades

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12
Q

Shared derived character

A

Evolutionary novelty that is exclusive to one clade e.g mammal fur

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13
Q

Shared ancestral/primitive character

A

A character shared by members of a particular clade that originated from an ancestor that is not a part of the clade
E.g eyes, backbone

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14
Q

Outgroup

A

A species from an evolutionary lineage that diverged before the lineage of a group of related species being studied. Closely related to the group but not as close as the group members to each other

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15
Q

Phylogram

A

Tree of branches that show how many DNA or RNA changes a have taken place in lineage. The longer the branch, the more changes that have occurred. Regardless of the branch lengths, all lineages have survived the same amount of time.

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16
Q

Orthologous and Paralogous

A

Orthologous - Homologous genes are found in different species from speciation

Paralogous - homologous genes that are found in different genomes of an organism through gene duplication

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17
Q

Homologous

A

Shared characteristics through shared ancestry

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18
Q

Molecular Clock

A

A method for estimating how long certain evolutions take based on observations that some regions of genomes evolve at different rates

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19
Q

Evolution

A

Decent with modification, the idea that all species descended from ancestral species with different characteristics

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20
Q

Natural theology

A

In 1700s natural theology viewed adaptation as evidence the creator had designed every species for a purpose

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21
Q

Taxonomy

A

Naming and putting all species into classes of increasingly complex hierarchies

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22
Q

Catastophism

A

Theory that instead of evolution, species in each strata were killed off from catastrophe rather than evolved into new species

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23
Q

Gradualism

A

Geological changes. Slow but continuous identical processes over a long period of time. E.g canyon carved from water

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24
Q

Uniformitarianism

A

Theory that geological processes have not changed throughout earths history

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25
Q

Descent with modification

A

Darwins way of avoiding the word evolution

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26
Q

Adaptations

A

Inherited characteristics that enhance an organisms survival and reproduction in a specific environment

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27
Q

Population genetics

A

Study of how populations change genetically over time

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28
Q

Modern synthesis

A

A comprehensive theory of evolution, shaping future ideas of how populations evolve

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29
Q

Gene pool

A

The total aggregate of genes in a population at one time

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30
Q

Hardy Weinberg theory and Equation

A

Describes the gene pool of a non changing population.

Non changing means no genetic drift(big population) no gene flow, no mutation, no natural selection and random mating

Equation helps determine the frequencies of alleles in a population.

p + q = 1

Once we know the frequency of alleles we can work out the frequency of genotype

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

Once calculating is finished, a punnet square can be used to confirm.

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31
Q

Genetic drift

A

Random fluctuations in gene frequencies in a gene pool due to a small population

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32
Q

Mutation

A

A change in the nucleotide sequence of an organisms DNA by insertion, deletion and substitution

Somatic mutations aren’t passed on

Gamate mutations are passed on

Only mutations that cause a change in the protein it codes for will result in a change

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33
Q

Bottleneck effect

A

When a population comes back from the brink of extinction the amount of genes in the gene pool for future generations to have is severely reduced giving the future populations very little genetic diversity

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34
Q

Gene flow

A

When genes from other populations enter the gene pool, due to migration or overlapping populations

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35
Q

Directional selection

A

When natural selection selects for one extreme e.g smaller. Usually due to an environment change

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36
Q

Disruptive selection

A

Selects for traits on either side of the norm, often leads to speciation.

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37
Q

Stabilising Selection

A

Selects for the norm by removing extreme variants. Due to population genes being ideal for current unchanging environment

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38
Q

Development

A

Evolutionary formation of a novelty over time e.g eyes

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39
Q

Macroevolution

A

Evolutionary change above the species level

E.g origin of a new group through speciation events or impact of mass extinction on the diversity of life

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40
Q

Exaptation

A

A shift in the function of a particular trait during evolution
E.g bi pedal evolution frees up from legs for using tools rather than walking

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41
Q

Current utility

A

The way a species utilises its current traits.

Evolution improves the way a a trait is used (current utility) it will not evolve to anticipate its future utility

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42
Q

Heterochrony

A

Evolution differences in developmental rates, leads to big phenotypic differences
E.g humans and chimpanzee skulls, during foetal development parts of the chimps skull grow much faster than humans while other parts are slower, this results in very different looks in two very similar species

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43
Q

Allometry/allometric growth

A

The study of how different organs/parts of an organism grow and develop at different rates and times. Leading to different proportions and shapes throughout the organisms life

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44
Q

Paedomorphosis

A

A type of hetrochrony where reproductive development occurs at a different rate as somatic development
E.g salamanders retaining their juvenile gills even at sexual maturity

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45
Q

Microevolution

A

Minor changes in a species, changes in allele frequencies. All changes below the species level

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46
Q

Homeotic genes

A

Determine basic features like where wings and legs will develop on a bird

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47
Q

Species selection

A

Like natural selection but instead of affecting populations it affects species group, the species that can disperse further, have more daughter species has a greater effect on the direction of the future evolutionary trends.

48
Q

Function

A

The purpose of a certain evolutionary trait

E.g jaw of a hyena determines that the purpose of hyenas is to scavenge meat

49
Q

Behavioural ecology

A

The study of the ecological and evolutionary basis for animal behaviour

50
Q

Fixed action pattern (FAP)

A

A sequence of unrelated acts linked to a simple stimulus

E.g stickleback males have red bellies and attack other males, the red on the belly lets them know there’s a threat. However anything red e.g a truck will trigger aggression - the fixed response towards red.

51
Q

Behaviour

A

An action carried out by muscles controlled by the nervous system

52
Q

Proximate questions

A
  1. What stimulus elicits the behaviour and what physiological mechanisms mediate the response
  2. How does the animals experience during growth influence the response
53
Q

Ultimate questions

A
  1. How does the behaviour aid survival and reproduction

2. What is the behaviours evolutionary history

54
Q

Ethology

A

Studying animal behaviours with scientific and objective study

55
Q

Sign stimulus

A

An external sensory cue that triggers a fixed action pattern response

E.g red for stickleback fish

56
Q

Imprinting

A

Establishing a long lasting behavioural response to a particular individual or object

57
Q

Sensitive period

A

The time period at the beginning of an animals life that imprinting can occur

58
Q

Innate behaviour

A

All individuals in a population behave alike

E.g fixed action pattern, courtship/response, and pheromone signalling

59
Q

Kinesis

A

Non directional reaction to external stimulus

E.g wood louse slowing down due to humidity

60
Q

Signal

A

A stimulus transferred from one organism to another

61
Q

Communication

A

Transmission and reception of signals between animals

62
Q

Pheromones

A

Animals that communicate through odours and tastes emit chemical substances called pheromones

63
Q

Habituation

A

Animal stops responding to stimulus after being exposed to stimulus many times

E.g animal learn a loud noise has no negative consequence so stops reacting to it

64
Q

Spatial learning

A

Establishment of a memory that reflects an environment

E.g wasps knowing which nest is theirs among many other by natural landmarks

65
Q

Cognitive map

A

A representation in an animals nervous system of the spatial relation between objects and its surrounds

66
Q

Associative learning

A

The ability to associate one environment feature with another

E.g birds associating a colour with a bad taste, knowing green berries don’t taste as good as red

67
Q

Classical conditioning

A

False stimulus becomes associated with a particular outcome

E.g ringing a bell before a dog gets fed, the dog eventually starts salivating anytime a bell rings, even when no food is present.

68
Q

Operant Learning

A

Animal learns to associate one of its behaviours with a reward or punishment

E.g bird learning not to eat monarch butterflies after vomiting

69
Q

Cognitive ethology

A

Studying how animals think

70
Q

Maximum Parsimony

A

When constructing phylogenetic trees the one with the least evolutionary changes is the most parsimonious. This maximises parsimony

71
Q

Artificial selection

A

Humans have selectively bred certain species for certain traits over many generations to create very different phenotypes

E.g selecting traits from wild mustard to create broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, Brussel sprouts, kale and kohlrabi

72
Q

Comparative embryology

A

Anatomical homologises in embryo not visible in adults organisms

73
Q

Vestigial Structure

A

Remnants of features that served important functions

Eg kiwi wings

74
Q

Introns and exons

A

Introns - non coding segments of DNA

Exons - regions retained in MRNA after RNA processing

Mutations can occur in both however only mutations in the exons will end up in the gene pool

75
Q

Founder effect

A

A few individuals who do not reflect their gene pool, start a new population. The new population has a very different (small) gene pool from the parent population

76
Q

Sexual recombination

A

Half of each parents Genes are combined and rearranged forming an offspring with a gene combination that has never existed before

Three mechanisms

  • crossing over
  • independent assortment of chromosomes
  • fertilisation
77
Q

Relative fitness

A

How well adapted one organism is prepared for the environment compared to another, higher fitness (better adapted) will live longer, reproduce more and their genes will be present at a higher rate in future gene pools

Can also be decide through combat/mating displays

78
Q

Allele

A

Genes with alternative versions that produce a phenotypic effect

E.g eye colour

79
Q

Gene

A

Unit of hereditary information, consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA in some viruses)

80
Q

Locus (loci - plural)

A

Specific place along the length of a chromosome where a given gene is located

81
Q

Chromosome

A

Cellular structure carrying genetic material, found in Nucleus. Consists of on very long DNA molecule and associated proteins

82
Q

Point mutation

A

Change of one base in a gene

E.g C-T, becoming G-A

83
Q

Silent mutation

A

Causes no protein effect therefore has no effect on anything

84
Q

Heterozygote Advantage

A

Describes the case in which Heterozygote genotype has a higher relative fitness than a homozygote dominant or recessive genotype

E.g people heterozygous for sickle cell disease are immune to malaria and do not suffer the disease, however homozygous individuals for sickle cell disease suffer sickle cell disease.

85
Q

Natural selection

A

Individuals equipped to survive to maturity and reproduce will pass on their genes, the fact they have reached maturity and have reproduced means their genes are likely well suited for the environment, whereas individual with less ideal genes may not survive and therefore their less ideal genes aren’t as highly represented in the gene pool/leave the gene pool in future generations

Adaptive evolution

86
Q

Sexual selection

A

Natural selection for mating success

Can result in sexual dimorphism- marked differences between the sexes in secondary sexual characteristics

87
Q

Intrasexual selection

A

Competition between sexes (often makes) for mating rights

88
Q

Intersexual selection

A

Individuals of one sex (usually females) are choosey in selecting their mates.

Selects for ornamentation, bright colours, extravagant courtship, complex songs

Good gene hypothesis suggests if a trait is related to male health, both the male trait and female preference for the trait should increase in frequency

89
Q

Speciation and types

A

A species evolving into two separate species

  • allopatric speciation occurs through isolation of population
  • sympatric speciation occurs within a population (maybe due to disruptive selection)
90
Q

Punctuated equilibrium

A

One species splits into two species, often from a major environmental change, the two species remain the same

91
Q

Gradualism model

A

Common ancestor gradually diverges into two very different species

92
Q

Adaptationism

A

A set of methods in the evolutionary sciences for distinguishing the products of adaptation from the traits that arise through other processes

E.g adaptation = umbilical cord, trait = belly button

93
Q

Adaptive radiation

A

Common ancestor diversified into many species over many environmental opportunities

94
Q

Adaptive radiation

A

Common ancestor diversified into many species over many environmental opportunities

95
Q

Cross fostering

A

Exchanging young between different species nests to decide what behaviours are nature and nature

96
Q

Social Learning

A

Learning an exercise off other in population - roots of culture

97
Q

Culture

A

A system of information transfer through social learning or teaching that influences behaviour of individuals in a population.

98
Q

Optimal foraging

A

Using the least amount of energy as possible in order to feed eg drop height of molluscs for crows

99
Q

Mating system

A

Promiscuity - no strong pair bonds

Monogamy - prolonged pair bond

Polygyny - one male with multiple females (often sexually dimorphic

Polyandry - one female with multiple males (females more showy)

Polygamous - having more than one partner

100
Q

Foraging

A

Searching for food in the wild. Reflects animals fitness as finding food is key to survival

101
Q

Altruism

A

Selflessness in the welfare of others. Eg helping others get a mate, grooming others

102
Q

Inclusive fitness

A

An organisms success is based on the altruistic behaviour of the population

103
Q

Coefficient of relatedness

A

Probability that two relatives share the same genes

104
Q

Hamiltons rule

A

Natural selection favours altruism when the benefit to the recipient multiplied by the coefficient of relatedness exceeds the cost to the altruist

rB>C

B benefit
r coefficient of relatedness
C the cost to the altruist

105
Q

Kin selection

A

Natural selection that favours altruistic behaviour by enhancing reproductive success of relatives

106
Q

Reciprocal altruism

A

Altruism towards unrelated, requires reciprocation eg grooming

107
Q

Game theory

A

Alternative behavioural strategies where outcome depends on all individuals involved.

108
Q

Mark recapture model

A

Capturing a group (100) of animals from an area, mark them, release them, then repeat.

N = total number of individuals in a population
n = total number captured
m = total number marked 
x = ratio of marked
x/n = m/N
N = mn/x
109
Q

Mate choice copying

A

Individuals in a population are influenced by the mate choice of others

110
Q

Population ecology

A

The study of populations in relation to their environment

Eg environmental influences on population density and distribution, age structure and variations in population size

111
Q

Density

A

The number of individuals per unit, area or volume

112
Q

Dispersion

A

The pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of a population

Clumped
Uniform
Random

113
Q

Territoriality

A

Being aggressive about a territory, leading to a uniform dispersion

114
Q

Life table

A

Tracks individual from birth and records how many make it through each year of their life until all a dead. Shows death rates, life expectancies and proportions alive each year in both sexes

115
Q

Survivorship curve

A

Track the number of deaths in a population at each age,

some populations have a rapid decline at birth-1 year and then the remaining few who make it live for a long time e.g oysters

Some have consistent rates of death throughout all ages e.g animals who are preyed on

Some (like humans) tend to live until old age and then have a big drop off due to age related deaths

116
Q

Population growth (exponential, logistic)

A

Population growth rate is birth - deaths (exclude immigration and emigration (equal birth and death numbers is zero population growth)

Exponential growth Occurs when a population grows under idealised conditions

Under these conditions the rate of reproduction is at its maximum

Called intrinsic rate of increase

dN/dAt=rmaxN

N population size
t time
r per capita growth rate

When a growing population becomes too large for its environment it will either stop growing and remain at carrying capacity or will grow too much, experience large death rates and then return to carrying capacity. Logistical growth model takes carrying capacity (K) into account.

Logistic model starts with exponential growth and then begins to slow as K is approaching.

dN/dt=rmaxN (K-N)/K

117
Q

Life history traits

A

Life histories are selected for, populations that need to grow will select for individuals who have larger clutches of small offspring(r selection), whereas populations that are at carrying capacity select for larger offspring and smaller clutches (K selection)

r and K referring to per capita and carry capacity growth

Biology of Animals (1 decks)

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