All Definitions (Scientific Processes)

Question 1

Abstract

Answer 1

A part of a scientific report that aims to summarise the report

Question 2

Aims

Answer 2

The objective or purpose of the experiment

Question 3

Bias

Answer 3

An inclination to a certain position or thought. For example, in hostile attribution bias, hostility or negativity is more likely to be assumed from a neutral face.

Question 4

Behavioural categories

Answer 4

An observational technique wherein participants’ possible behaviours are separated into more specific components. This allows for operationalisation of the behaviour. For example, splitting aggression into categories of “swearing” and “punching”.

Question 5

Concurrent validity

Answer 5

Occurs if a test is similar to an older test that already has well-established validity.

Question 6

Control variable

Answer 6

Any variables that are kept constant through the experiment to prevent their effects on the dependent variable.

Question 7

Confounding variable

Answer 7

A type of extraneous variable that is related to the independent variable in the experiment. For example, if you were testing the effects of anxiety on memory recall, the relative levels of sensitivity to anxiety-inducing stimuli would be a confounding variable.

Question 8

Counterbalancing

Answer 8

To make half of the participant sample experience the different conditions of the experiment in one order, and the other half of the participants complete it in the opposite order.

Question 9

Demand characteristics

Answer 9

Changes in the participants’ behaviour to comply with the hypothesis of the researcher.

Question 10

Dependent variable

Answer 10

The variable that changes in response to manipulation of the researcher, that is being measured for the experiment. For example, if you were testing the effects of anxiety on memory recall, memory recall would be the dependent variable.

Question 11

Directional hypothesis

Answer 11

A hypothesis that specifies the direction of the relationship e.g. coffee will have an effect on the reaction time of participants.

Question 12

Ecological validity

Answer 12

How well results from a test can be applied r to real life.

Question 13

Event sampling

Answer 13

An observational technique wherein an observer records every time a particular behaviour or “event” occurs, usually in the form of a tally chart.

Question 14

Extraneous variable

Answer 14

Variables other than the independent variable that have an effect on the dependent variable. For example, if you were testing the effects of anxiety on memory recall, the intelligence levels of the participants could be an extraneous variable.

Question 15

Face validity

Answer 15

If a test appears to be valid at first appearances, in spite of how well it works in a real world scenario.

Question 16

Falsifiability

Answer 16

The quality of being able to be proven wrong. For example, the proposition “All crows are black” could be falsified by observing one white crow. Thus the statement is falsifiable, even if a while crow has not been hitherto observed.

Question 17

Generalisation

Answer 17

To attribute information from a sample to the rest of the population.

Question 18

Hypothesis

Answer 18

The prediction of the outcome of the experiment.

Question 19

Independent groups

Answer 19

An experimental design wherein participants are involved in different conditions of the experiment. For example, using two different groups of people to test the effect of music on memory recall, with one group memorising during music playing and the other in silence.

Question 20

Independent variable

Answer 20

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher to observe its effects on the dependent variable. For example, if you were testing the effects of anxiety on memory recall, anxiety would be the independent variable.

Question 21

Inter-observer reliability

Answer 21

Multiple investigator gather information separately during an observational and compare their data for similarity after.

Question 22

Investigation effects

Answer 22

Unconscious changes in the investigators behaviour to comply with the hypothesis of the investigation.

Question 23

Matched pairs

Answer 23

An experimental design wherein participants in different conditions of the experiment are matched on certain variables to reduce the effect of participant variables. For example, in the Bobo doll study, children were matched on scores of aggressiveness for each condition.

Question 24

Non-directional hypothesis

Answer 24

A hypothesis that does not specify the direction of the relationship of the experiment e.g. coffee will change the reaction times of participants (whether it will increase or decrease the times is not specified).

Question 25

Objectivity

Answer 25

Empirical; something that is not influenced by personal feelings.

Question 26

Open questions

Answer 26

A type of question that requires answers that are longer than “yes” or “no”.

Question 27

Operationalisation (of variables)

Answer 27

To clearly state and objectify a variable. For example, instead of measuring “aggression”, researchers would convert it into observable categories like “punching” and “kicking”.

Question 28

Opportunity sampling

Answer 28

A sampling technique that involves obtaining a sample via anyone that is available from the population at the time of collecting the sample. For example, handing questionnaires out to people outside a shopping centre.

Question 29

Paradigm

Answer 29

A basic concept; a well accepted core belief

Question 30

Paradigm shift

Answer 30

When previously accepted core concepts in a science are changed, usually due to the emergence of new evidence.

Question 31

Peer review

Answer 31

The assessment of work by other people with similar levels of expertise in that field, to provide an unbiased expert opinion of the quality of said work.

Question 32

Pilot studies

Answer 32

Preliminary/trial studies carried out to ensure the clarity of the study itself. For example, using a pilot questionnaire on a sample of people that give feedback on the clarity of the questions.

Question 33

Population

Answer 33

The group represented by a sample.

Question 34

Random allocation

Answer 34

To allocate participants to separate conditions using some sort of randomisation technique. For example, using a computer to randomly generate groups for condition A and B.

Question 35

Random sampling

Answer 35

A sampling technique that involves randomly generating participants from the population by any randomisation technique. For example: random number generation from a computer, picking names out of a hat.

Question 36

Reliability

Answer 36

Essentially replicability; the extent to which the test can be repeated and gather similar results.

Question 37

Repeated measures

Answer 37

An experimental design wherein the same participants undergo all the conditions of the experiment. For example, when testing the effect of coffee on reaction time, all participants will be tested for reaction time with and without coffee.

Question 38

Replicability

Answer 38

How easily a test can be reproduced

Question 39

Sample

Answer 39

A smaller group that aims to be representative of a population.

Question 40

Standardisation

Answer 40

Keeping the experimental methods as identical as possible.

Question 41

Stratified sampling

Answer 41

A sampling technique that involves establishing sub-groups (strata) within the population investigated and picking participants to create a representative sample. For example, if the population is 2/3 female and 1/3 male, the sample should also be 2/3 female and 1/3 male.

Question 42

Systematic sampling

Answer 42

A sampling technique that involves establishing a method to pick participants evenly distributed through the population. For example, picking every 10th participant in a list of the entire population.

Question 43

Temporal validity

Answer 43

How well results from a test can be applied across time periods.

Question 44

Test-retest reliability

Answer 44

Completing a test multiple times and comparing the scores for similarity.

Question 45

Time sampling

Answer 45

An observational technique wherein an observer only records specific behaviours in specific time intervals. For example observing and recording the behaviour of football fans at a stadium every 15 mins for 30 secs.

Question 46

Validity

Answer 46

Essentially truthfulness; the extent to which a test measures what it aims to measure, I.e. uncontrolled extraneous variables reduce validity because they affect what is supposed to be measured.

Question 47

Volunteer sampling

Answer 47

A sampling technique that involves using participants that volunteer to take part in the study, provided they meet the inclusion criteria. For example, putting a request on an information board in your school and sending questionnaires to those that respond.