All Content from Practice Exam

Question 1

Various Correct Disorders/Treatments

Answer 1

OCD: exposure and response prevention

Social Anxiety: systematic desensitization

Depression: cognitive therapy

Borderline personality disorder: dialectical behavior therapy

Question 2

Encopresis

Answer 2

Encopresis, also known as paradoxical diarrhea) is voluntary or involuntary fecal soiling in children who have usually already been toilet trained. Persons with encopresis often leak stool into their undergarments.

This term is usually applied to children, and where the symptom is present in adults, it is more commonly known as fecal leakage (FL), fecal soiling or fecal seepage

The standard behavioral treatment for functional encopresis, which has been shown to be highly effective is a motivational system such as a contingency management system

Question 3

Autism

Answer 3

Characterized by:

Intolerance of change

Communication problems

Ritualistic repetitive behavior

Weak attachment to others

Question 4

Exemplification

Answer 4

Exemplification means using examples to explain, convince, or amuse

Question 5

Distal and Proximal Stimulus

Answer 5

The process of perception begins with an object in the real world, termed the distal stimulus or distal object.[2] By means of light, sound or another physical process, the object stimulates the body’s sensory organs. These sensory organs transform the input energy into neural activity—a process called transduction.[2][6] This raw pattern of neural activity is called the proximal stimulus.[2] These neural signals are transmitted to the brain and processed.[2] The resulting mental re-creation of the distal stimulus is the percept. Perception is sometimes described as the process of constructing mental representations of distal stimuli using the information available in proximal stimuli.

An example would be a person looking at a shoe. The shoe itself is the distal stimulus. When light from the shoe enters a person’s eye and stimulates their retina, that stimulation is the proximal stimulus.[7] The image of the shoe reconstructed by the brain of the person is the percept. Another example would be a telephone ringing. The ringing of the telephone is the distal stimulus. The sound stimulating a person’s auditory receptors is the proximal stimulus, and the brain’s interpretation of this as the ringing of a telephone is the percept. The different kinds of sensation such as warmth, sound, and taste are called “sensory modalities”.[6][8]

Question 6

Purposive Behaviorism

Answer 6

Edward Tolman

Purposive behaviorism is a branch of psychology that was introduced by Edward C. Tolman. It combines the objective study of behavior while also considering the purpose or goal of behavior.[1] Tolman thought that learning developed from knowledge about the environment and how the organism relates to its environment.[2] Tolman’s goal was to identify the complex cognitive mechanisms and purposes that guided behavior.[3] His theories on learning went against the traditionally accepted stimulus-response connections (see classical conditioning) at this time that were proposed by other psychologists such as Edward Thorndike. Tolman disagreed with Watson’s behaviorism, so he initiated his own behaviorism, which became known as purposive behaviorism.

Tolman’s purposive behaviorism focused on meaningful behavior, or molar behavior, such as kicking a ball. This focus was in contrast to simple muscle movements aka molecular behavior such as flexing of the leg muscle. Tolman regarded the molecular behavior as fairly removed from human perceptual capacities for a meaningful analysis of behavior. This approach of Tolman’s was first introduced in his book, Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men, published in 1932.[4] To Tolman, it was obvious that all actions of behavior are goal-oriented, including those for animals.[5] The main difference between behaviorism and Tolman’s purposive behaviorism is that behavior is goal oriented.

Question 7

Sign-Gestalt Learning (Tolman)

Answer 7

In his Sign Gestalt Theory, he put forth the notion that there are three parts to learning which work together as a gestalt. These are the “significant” or goal of behavior, the “sign” or signal for action, and “means-end relations” which were internal processes and relationships. He believed learning is an accumulation of these sign gestalts, and that they are then configured into cognitive maps. Input about the environment, which is ongoing, also influences behavior in that it causes certain gestalts to be selected or not, in relation to the individuals purpose or goals, and other factors. In this sense, learning is unique to each individual

Question 8

Erich Fromm

Answer 8

A German social psychologist, psychoanalyst, sociologist, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist. He was associated with what became known as the Frankfurt School of critical theory.[1]

Question 9

Karen Horney

Answer 9

Neo-Freudian

Proposed confrontation, avoidance, and seeking social support are the ways that people cope with anxiety

Further, she disagreed with Freud about inherent differences in the psychology of men and women and traced such differences to society and culture rather than biology.

Question 10

Edward Titchener

Answer 10

Structuralist

Structuralism (based on writings of Wilhelm Wundt):

Titchener said that only observable events constituted science and that any speculation concerning unobservable events has no place in society

Question 11

Cooperative Learning

Answer 11

Involves joint effort among students

Question 12

Semantics and sentence parsing

Question 13

Pragmatic Language

Answer 13

Rules for Social Language

Question 14

Social Referencing

Answer 14

Begins to look to others’ emotions before acting

Ex.: Looking at mother to see how she responds to something (like a cat) and then deciding how to respond

Question 15

Animism

Answer 15

Animism is the religious worldview that natural physical entities—including animals, plants, and often even inanimate objects or phenomena—possess a spiritual essence

Animism can be said to be the experience of being part of the living biosphere (or even the whole “animate” universe). In this sense, something that is “animate” is simply something that is “alive,” and to be an animist is to believe things to be alive that others perceive as “inanimate.”

Question 16

Centrism

Answer 16

In politics, centrism or the centre describes a political outlook or specific position that involves acceptance or support of a balance of a degree of social equality and a degree of social hierarchy or social inequality; whilst opposing political changes which would result in a significant shift of society either strongly to the left or the right.[1] Centrism emphasizes meritocracy.

Question 17

Parkinson’s Disease

Answer 17

Failure of dopamine produced in the substantia nigra to reach the basal ganglia of the cerebral hemispheres

Resulting Symptoms: tremor, rigidity, akinesia (the inability to initiate movement due to difficulty selecting and/or activating motor programs in the central nervous system), disturbances of posture

Question 18

Athetosis

Answer 18

Athetosis is a symptom characterized by slow, involuntary, convoluted, writhing movements of the fingers, hands, toes, and feet and in some cases, arms, legs, neck and tongue

Athetosis is a symptom primarily caused by the marbling, or degeneration of the basal ganglia.[citation needed] This degeneration is most commonly caused by complications at birth or by Huntington’s Disease

Question 19

Huntington’s Disease

Question 20

Myoclonus

Answer 20

Myoclonus (pron.: /maɪˈɒklənəs/) is a brief, involuntary twitching of a muscle or a group of muscles. It describes a medical sign and, generally, is not a diagnosis of a disease. Brief twitches are perfectly normal. The myoclonic twitches are usually caused by sudden muscle contractions; they also can result from brief lapses of contraction. Contractions are called positive myoclonus; relaxations are called negative myoclonus. The most common time for people to encounter them is while falling asleep (hypnic jerk), but myoclonic jerks are also a sign of a number of neurological disorders. Hiccups are also a kind of myoclonic jerk specifically affecting the diaphragm. When a spasm is caused by another person it is known as a “provoked spasm”. Shuddering attacks with babies also fall in this category.

Myoclonic jerks may occur alone or in sequence, in a pattern or without pattern. They may occur infrequently or many times each minute. Most often, myoclonus is one of several signs in a wide variety of nervous system disorders such as multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, subacute sclerosing panencephalitis and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), serotonin toxicity, some cases of Huntington’s disease, some forms of epilepsy, and occasionally in intracranial hypotension. Some researchers indicate that jerks persistently may even cause early tremors.

In almost all instances in which myoclonus is caused by central nervous system disease it is preceded by other symptoms; for instance, in CJD it is generally a late-stage clinical feature that appears after the patient has already started to exhibit gross neurological deficits.

Question 21

Fixed Action Patterns

Answer 21

Result from innate releasing mechanisms

Question 22

Foraging

Answer 22

Foraging is searching for and exploiting food resources. It affects an animal’s fitness because it plays an important role in an animal’s ability to survive and reproduce.[1] Foraging theory is a branch of behavioral ecology that studies the foraging behavior of animals in response to the environment where the animal lives.

Since an animal’s environment is constantly changing, the ability to adjust foraging behavior is essential for maximization of fitness. Studies in social insects have shown that there is a significant correlation between learning and foraging performance.[3] In nonhuman primates, young individuals learn foraging behavior from their peers and elders by watching other group members forage and by copying their behavior.[4] Observing and learning from other members of the group ensure that the younger members of the group learn what is safe to eat and become proficient foragers.

One measure of learning is ‘Foraging innovation’—an animal consuming new food, or using a new foraging technique in response to their dynamic living environment.[5] Foraging innovation is considered learning because it involves behavioral plasticity on the animal’s part. The animal recognizes the need to come up with a new foraging strategy and introduce something it has never used before to maximize his or her fitness (survival). Forebrain size has been associated with learning behavior. Animals with larger brain sizes are expected to learn better.[5] A higher ability to innovate has been linked to larger forebrain sizes in North American and British Isle birds according to Lefebvre et al. (1997).[6] In this study, bird orders that contained individuals with larger forebrain sizes displayed a higher amount of foraging innovation. Examples of innovations recorded in birds include following tractors and eating frogs or other insects killed by it and using swaying trees to catch their prey.[5]

Question 23

Prostaglandin

Answer 23

A prostaglandin is any member of a group of lipid compounds that are derived enzymatically from fatty acids and have important functions in the animal body. Every prostaglandin contains 20 carbon atoms, including a 5-carbon ring.

They are mediators and have a variety of strong physiological effects, such as regulating the contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle tissue.[1] Prostaglandins are not endocrine hormones, but autocrine or paracrine, which are locally acting messenger molecules. They differ from hormones in that they are not produced at a discrete site but in many places throughout the human body. Also, their target cells are present in the immediate vicinity of the site of their secretion (of which there are many).

The prostaglandins, together with the thromboxanes and prostacyclins, form the prostanoid class of fatty acid derivatives, a subclass of eicosanoids.

Question 24

Autonomic Nervous System

Answer 24

Primarily deals with visceral muscles and glands

Question 25

Visceral Muscles

Answer 25

AKA Smooth muscle: an involuntary non-striated muscle. It is divided into two sub-groups; the single-unit (unitary) and multiunit smooth muscle. Within single-unit smooth muscle tissues, the autonomic nervous system innervates a single cell within a sheet or bundle and the action potential is propagated by gap junctions to neighboring cells such that the whole bundle or sheet contracts as a syncytium (i.e., a multinucleate mass of cytoplasm that is not separated into cells). Multiunit smooth muscle tissues innervate individual cells; as such, they allow for fine control and gradual responses, much like motor unit recruitment in skeletal muscle.

Smooth muscle is found within the walls of blood vessels (such smooth muscle specifically being termed vascular smooth muscle) such as in the tunica media layer of large (aorta) and small arteries, arterioles and veins. Smooth muscle is also found in lymphatic vessels, the urinary bladder, uterus (termed uterine smooth muscle), male and female reproductive tracts, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, arrector pili of skin, the ciliary muscle, and iris of the eye. The structure and function is basically the same in smooth muscle cells in different organs, but the inducing stimuli differ substantially, in order to perform individual effects in the body at individual times. In addition, the glomeruli of the kidneys contain smooth muscle-like cells called mesangial cells.

Question 26

Corpus Callosum

Answer 26

The corpus callosum (Latin: tough body), also known as the colossal commissure, is a wide, flat bundle of neural fibers beneath the cortex in the eutherian brain at the longitudinal fissure. It connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres and facilitates interhemispheric communication. It is the largest white matter structure in the brain, consisting of 200–250 million contralateral axonal projections.

Question 27

Sylvian Fissure

Answer 27

The lateral sulcus (also called Sylvian fissure or lateral fissure) is one of the most prominent structures of the human brain.

[edit] AnatomyIt divides the frontal lobe and parietal lobe above from the temporal lobe below. It is in both hemispheres of the brain but is longer in the left hemisphere in most people. The lateral sulcus is one of the earliest-developing sulci of the human brain. It first appears around the fourteenth gestational week.[1]

The lateral sulcus has a number of side branches. Two of the most prominent and most regularly found are the ascending (also called vertical) ramus and the horizontal ramus of the lateral fissure, which subdivide the inferior frontal gyrus. The lateral sulcus also contains the transverse temporal gyri, which are part of the primary and below the surface auditory cortex.

Partly due to a phenomenon called Yakovlevian torque, the lateral sulcus is often longer and less curved on the left hemisphere than on the right.

It is also located near Sylvian Point.

The area lying around the Sylvian fissure is often referred to as the perisylvian cortex.[2]

Question 28

Social Cognition

Answer 28

Social concepts used frequently by an individual in the past are likely to influence the individual’s future social cognitions

See link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_cognition

Question 29

Top-down Processing

Answer 29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top-down_and_bottom-up_design#Neuroscience_and_psychology

From test:

We often perceive what we expect to perceive. Shown ambiguous figures, we are more likely to see the figure as a vase if we have just been shown a series of vases. The influence of expectation on perception is an example of top-down processing.

Question 30

Linear Perspective

Answer 30

Linear perspective always works by representing the light that passes from a scene through an imaginary rectangle (the painting), to the viewer’s eye. It is similar to a viewer looking through a window and painting what is seen directly onto the windowpane. If viewed from the same spot as the windowpane was painted, the painted image would be identical to what was seen through the unpainted window. Each painted object in the scene is a flat, scaled down version of the object on the other side of the window.[1] Because each portion of the painted object lies on the straight line from the viewer’s eye to the equivalent portion of the real object it represents, the viewer cannot perceive (sans depth perception) any difference between the painted scene on the windowpane and the view of the real scene. All perspective drawings assume the viewer is a certain distance away from the drawing. Objects are scaled relative to that viewer. Additionally, an object is often not scaled evenly: a circle often appears as an ellipse and a square can appear as a trapezoid. This distortion is referred to as foreshortening.

Perspective drawings have a horizon line, which is often implied. This line, directly opposite the viewer’s eye, represents objects infinitely far away. They have shrunk, in the distance, to the infinitesimal thickness of a line. It is analogous to (and named after) the Earth’s horizon.

Any perspective representation of a scene that includes parallel lines has one or more vanishing points in a perspective drawing. A one-point perspective drawing means that the drawing has a single vanishing point, usually (though not necessarily) directly opposite the viewer’s eye and usually (though not necessarily) on the horizon line. All lines parallel with the viewer’s line of sight recede to the horizon towards this vanishing point. This is the standard “receding railroad tracks” phenomenon. A two-point drawing would have lines parallel to two different angles. Any number of vanishing points are possible in a drawing, one for each set of parallel lines that are at an angle relative to the plane of the drawing.

Perspectives consisting of many parallel lines are observed most often when drawing architecture (architecture frequently uses lines parallel to the x, y, and z axes). Because it is rare to have a scene consisting solely of lines parallel to the three Cartesian axes (x, y, and z), it is rare to see perspectives in practice with only one, two, or three vanishing points; even a simple house frequently has a peaked roof which results in a minimum of six sets of parallel lines, in turn corresponding to up to six vanishing points.

In contrast, natural scenes often do not have any sets of parallel lines and thus no vanishing points.

Question 31

Simultaneous contrast and Contrast Effects

Answer 31

A contrast effect is the enhancement or diminishment, relative to normal, of perception, cognition and related performance as a result of immediately previous or simultaneous exposure to a stimulus of lesser or greater value in the same dimension. (Here, normal perception or performance is that which would be obtained in the absence of the comparison stimulus—i.e., one based on all previous experience.)

Contrast effects are ubiquitous throughout human and non-human animal perception, cognition, and resultant performance. A weight is perceived as heavier than normal when “contrasted” with a lighter weight. It is perceived as lighter than normal when contrasted with a heavier weight. An animal works harder than normal for a given amount of reward when that amount is contrasted with a lesser amount and works less energetically for that given amount when it is contrasted with a greater amount. A person appears more appealing than normal when contrasted with a person of less appeal and less appealing than normal when contrasted with one of greater appeal.

Simultaneous contrast identified by Michel Eugène Chevreul refers to the manner in which the colors of two different objects affect each other. The effect is more noticeable when shared between objects of complementary color.[1]

In the image here, the two inner rectangles are exactly the same shade of grey, but the upper one appears to be a lighter grey than the lower one due to the background provided by the outer rectangles.

This is a different concept from contrast, which by itself refers to one object’s difference in color and luminance compared to its surroundings or background.

Successive contrastSuccessive contrast occurs when the perception of currently viewed stimuli is modulated by previously viewed stimuli.

For example, when one stares at the dot in the center of one of the two colored disks on the top row for a few seconds and then looks at the dot in the center of the disk on the same side in the bottom row, the two lower disks, though identically colored, appear to have different colors for a few moments.

One type of contrast that involves both time and space is metacontrast and paracontrast. When one half of a circle is lit for 10 milliseconds, it is at its maximum intensity. If the other half is displayed at the same time (but 20-50 ms later), there is a mutual inhibition: the left side is darkened by the right half (metacontrast), and the center may be completely obliterated. At the same time, there is a slight darkening of the right side due to the first stimulus; this is paracontrast.[2]

Question 32

Private Speech

Answer 32

It can enhance children’s understanding of their immediate situations and help them make decisions as they talk to themselves

Private speech is speech spoken to oneself for communication, self-guidance, and self-regulation of behavior.[1][2][3] Children from two to about seven years old can be observed engaging in private speech.[1][2][3] Although it is audible, it is neither intended for nor directed at others.[4][5] Private speech was first studied by Lev Vygotsky (1934/1986) and Jean Piaget (1959); in the past 30 years private speech has received renewed attention from researchers.[6] Researchers have noted a positive correlation between children’s use of private speech and their task performance and achievement,[7][8][9] a fact also noted perviously by Vygotsky.[2] It is when children begin school that their use of private speech decreases and “goes underground”.[10]

Question 33

Skewness

Answer 33

In probability theory and statistics, skewness is a measure of the extent to which a probability distribution of a real-valued random variable “leans” to one side of the mean. The skewness value can be positive or negative, or even undefined.

The qualitative interpretation of the skew is complicated. For a unimodal distribution, negative skew indicates that the tail on the left side of the probability density function is longer or fatter than the right side – it does not distinguish these shapes. Conversely, positive skew indicates that the tail on the right side is longer or fatter than the left side. In cases where one tail is long but the other tail is fat, skewness does not obey a simple rule. For example, a zero value indicates that the tails on both sides of the mean balance out, which is the case both for a symmetric distribution, and for asymmetric distributions where the asymmetries even out, such as one tail being long but thin, and the other being short but fat. Further, in multimodal distributions and discrete distributions, skewness is also difficult to interpret. Importantly, the skewness does not determine the relationship of mean and median.

Question 34

Avoidance Learning

Answer 34

Ex.: father tells son he will have to do the dishes on Saturday if he did not clean his room

Question 35

Test Development Stages

Answer 35

Correct sequence: test conceptualization, test construction, test tryout, item analysis, revision

Question 36

Harold Kelley

Answer 36

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Kelley#Attribution_Theory

Question 37

Theory of Reasoned Action/Planned Behavior

Answer 37

Components:

Perceived behavioral control

Attitude toward behavior

Behavioral intentions

Subjective Social Norms

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_reasoned_action

Question 38

Elaboration Liklihood Model of Persuasion

Answer 38

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaboration_likelihood_model

Question 39

Equity Theory and Expectancy Theory

Answer 39

Assume that cognitive factors are central to motivated behavior

Equity theory proposes that individuals who perceive themselves as either under-rewarded or over-rewarded will experience distress, and that this distress leads to efforts to restore equity within the relationship. It focuses on determining whether the distribution of resources is fair to both relational partners. Equity is measured by comparing the ratios of contributions and benefits of each person within the relationship. Partners do not have to receive equal benefits (such as receiving the same amount of love, care, and financial security) or make equal contributions (such as investing the same amount of effort, time, and financial resources), as long as the ratio between these benefits and contributions is similar. Much like other prevalent theories of motivation, such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, equity theory acknowledges that subtle and variable individual factors affect each person’s assessment and perception of their relationship with their relational partners (Guerrero et al., 2007). According to Adams (1965), anger is induced by underpayment inequity and guilt is induced with overpayment equity (Spector 2008). Payment whether hourly wage or salary, is the main concern and therefore the cause of equity or inequity in most cases.

In any position, an employee wants to feel that their contributions and work performance are being rewarded with their pay. If an employee feels underpaid then it will result in the employee feeling hostile towards the organization and perhaps their co-workers, which may result in the employee not performing well at work anymore. It is the subtle variables that also play an important role in the feeling of equity. Just the idea of recognition for the job performance and the mere act of thanking the employee will cause a feeling of satisfaction and therefore help the employee feel worthwhile and have better outcomes.

Expectancy theory proposes that a person will decide to behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over other behaviors due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be.[1] In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is determined by the desirability of the outcome. However, at the core of the theory is the cognitive process of how an individual processes the different motivational elements. This is done before making the ultimate choice. The outcome is not the sole determining factor in making the decision of how to behave.[1]

Expectancy theory is about the mental processes regarding choice, or choosing. It explains the processes that an individual undergoes to make choices. In the study of organizational behavior, expectancy theory is a motivation theory first proposed by Victor Vroom of the Yale School of Management.

“This theory emphasizes the needs for organizations to relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are those rewards deserved and wanted by the recipients.” [2]

Victor H. Vroom (1964) defines motivation as a process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activities, a process controlled by the individual. The individual makes choices based on estimates of how well the expected results of a given behavior are going to match up with or eventually lead to the desired results. Motivation is a product of the individual’s expectancy that a certain effort will lead to the intended performance, the instrumentality of this performance to achieving a certain result, and the desirability of this result for the individual, known as valence.[3]

Question 40

fMRI

Answer 40

Noninvasive way to study processing by intact human brain

Functional magnetic resonance imaging or functional MRI (fMRI) is an MRI procedure that measures brain activity by detecting associated changes in blood flow.[1] This technique relies on the fact that cerebral blood flow and neuronal activation are coupled. When an area of the brain is in use, blood flow to that region also increases.

The primary form of fMRI uses the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) contrast,[2] discovered by Seiji Ogawa. This is a type of specialized brain and body scan used to map neural activity in the brain or spinal cord of humans or animals by imaging the change in blood flow (hemodynamic response) related to energy use by brain cells.[3] Since the early 1990s, fMRI has come to dominate brain mapping research because it does not require people to undergo shots, surgery, or to ingest substances, or be exposed to radiation.[4] Another method of obtaining contrast is arterial spin labeling.[5]

The procedure is similar to MRI but uses the change in magnetization between oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood as its basic measure.

Question 41

Wada Test

Answer 41

The Wada test, named after Canadian neurologist and epileptologist Juhn Atsushi Wada, also known as the “intracarotid sodium amobarbital procedure” (ISAP), is used to establish cerebral language and memory representation of each hemisphere.

[edit] MethodThe test is conducted with the patient awake. Essentially, a barbiturate (which is usually sodium amobarbital) is introduced into one of the internal carotid arteries via a cannula or intra-arterial catheter from the femoral artery. The drug is injected into one hemisphere at a time. The effect is to shut down any language and/or memory function in that hemisphere in order to evaluate the other hemisphere (“half of the brain”). Then the patient is engaged in a series of language and memory related tests. The memory is evaluated by showing a series of items or pictures to the patient so that within a few minutes as soon as the effect of the medication is dissipated, the ability to recall can be tested.

There is currently great variability in the processes used to administer the test, and so it is difficult to compare results from one patient to the other.[1]

Question 42

Hippocampus

Answer 42

Critical for encoding of new memories

Question 43

Social Comparison Theory

Answer 43

Social comparison theory was initially proposed by social psychologist Leon Festinger in 1954.[1] Social comparison theory is centered on the belief that there is a drive within individuals to gain accurate self-evaluations. The theory explains how individuals evaluate their own opinions and abilities by comparing themselves to others in order to reduce uncertainty in these domains, and learn how to define the self.

Following the initial theory, research began to focus on social comparison as a way of self-enhancement,[2][3] introducing the concepts of downward an upward comparisons and expanding the motivations of social comparisons.[4]

Question 44

Social Exchange Theory

Answer 44

Social Exchange Theory is a social psychological and sociological perspective that explains social change and stability as a process of negotiated exchanges between parties. Social Exchange Theory posits that all human relationships are formed by the use of a subjective cost-benefit analysis and the comparison of alternatives. The theory has roots in economics, psychology and sociology. Social Exchange Theory features many of the main assumptions found in rational choice theory and structuralism.

Question 45

Flooding

Answer 45

Good for phobia treatment

Question 46

Existential Therapy Limitation

Answer 46

Lacks well-defined therapeutic techniques

Question 47

Parallel Play

Answer 47

Parallel play is a form of play where children play adjacent to each other, but do not try to influence one another’s behaviour. Children usually play alone during parallel play but are interested in what other children are doing. This usually occurs after the first birthday. [1] It usually involves two or more children in the same room that are interested in the same toy, each seeing the toy as their own. The children do not play together, but alongside each other simply because they are in the same room.

Question 48

Rooting Reflex

Answer 48

Rooting reflex
Rooting reflexThe rooting reflex is present at birth and disappears around four months of age, as it gradually comes under voluntary control. The rooting reflex assists in the act of breastfeeding. A newborn infant will turn his head toward anything that strokes his cheek or mouth, searching for the object by moving his head in steadily decreasing arcs until the object is found. After becoming used to responding in this way, (if breastfed, approximately three weeks after birth), the infant will move directly to the object without searching.[10]

Question 49

Caudate Nucleus

Answer 49

The caudate nucleus is a nucleus located within the basal ganglia of the brains of many animal species. The caudate nucleus is an important part of the brain’s learning and memory system.

Question 50

Hippocampus

Answer 50

New neurons can form in the hippocampus adult brain

Question 51

Distributed System Features, specifically Parallel Distributed Processing

Answer 51

New concepts are learned via connection weights that cause a pattern of activation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_distributed_processing

Question 52

For Double Blind Procedures

Answer 52

A placebo group should be added and it should be ensured that neither the participants nor those administering the test know who is in the experimental group vs. the control group

Question 53

To be a true experiment

Answer 53

Muse use random assignment

Question 54

Ex post Facto Study

Answer 54

Ex post facto is a Latin expression that literally translates to mean something that occurs after the fact. Social science research is a field of study that requires the compilation of certain types of human behaviors. The scientist who conducts the research may also conduct the observations personally or he may rely on the self-report of subjects who participate in the study. He needs to find . data that will support or fail to support the hypothesis that he formulated when he began the project. Either finding is adequate for the purpose of satisfying the hypothesis, but intervening variables may present a reason to conduct ex post facto research to explain them.If a researcher had asked a certain group of people to report the number of hours that they spent watching television, he may receive a varying amount of time spent by different viewers. However, if he found at the end of the research period that a group of people reported very low viewing time, he may need to find an answer for the variation. The results of the research may be severely skewed if he were to find that those viewers had been without electric power for the days in which the survey was conducted.

Question 55

Type A Personality and Heart Attacks

Answer 55

Trait most associated with heart problems within Type A personality is hostility towards others

Question 56

Availability and Representativeness Heuristics

Answer 56

The representativeness heuristic is used when making judgments about the probability of an event under uncertainty.[1] It is one of a group of heuristics (simple rules governing judgment or decision making) proposed by psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in the early 1970s. They defined representativeness as “the degree to which [an event] (i) is similar in essential characteristics to its parent population, and (ii) reflects the salient features of the process by which it is generated”.[2][3] When people rely on representativeness to make judgements, they are likely to judge wrongly because the fact that something is more representative does not make it more likely.[4] This heuristic is used because it is an easy computation.[4] The problem is that people overestimate its ability to accurately predict the likelihood of an event.[5] Thus it can result in neglect of relevant base rates and other cognitive biases.[6][7]

The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that occurs when people make judgments about the probability of events by how easy it is to think of examples. The availability heuristic operates on the notion that, “if you can think of it, it must be important.” The availability of consequences associated with an action is positively related to perceptions of the magnitude of the consequences of that action. In other words, the easier it is to recall the consequences of something, the greater we perceive these consequences to be. Sometimes, this heuristic is beneficial, but the frequencies that events come to mind are usually not accurate reflections of their actual probability in real life.[1] For example, if someone asked you whether your college had more students from Colorado or more from California, under the availability heuristic, you would probably answer the question based on the relative availability of examples of Colorado students and California students. If you recall more students that come from California that you know, you will be more likely to conclude that more students in your college are from California than from Colorado.[2]

Question 57

PET (Positron emission tomography)

Answer 57

Changes in neural activity that occur throughout the brain during reading can be measured by a PET scan

Question 58

Jerome Kagan

Answer 58

He has shown that an infant’s “temperament” is quite stable over time, in that certain behaviors in infancy are predictive of certain other behavior patterns in adolescence[4] T. He did extensive work on temperament and gave insight on emotion.

Question 59

Diathesis-Stress Model

Answer 59

The diathesis-stress model is a psychological theory that attempts to explain behavior as a predispositional vulnerability together with stress from life experiences. The term diathesis derives from the Greek term for disposition, or vulnerability, and it can take the form of genetic, psychology, biological, or situational factors.[1] A large range of individual differences exist between persons in their vulnerability to the development of disorder.[1]

The diathesis, or predisposition, interacts with the subsequent stress response of an individual. Stress refers to a life event or series of events that disrupt a person’s psychological equilibrium and potentially serves as a catalyst to the development of a disorder.[2] Thus, the diathesis-stress model serves to explore how non-biological or genetic traits (diatheses) interact with environmental influences (stressors) to produce disorders, such as depression, anxiety, or schizophrenia.[3] The diathesis-stress model asserts that if the combination of the predisposition and the stress exceeds a threshold, the person will develop a disorder.[4]

The use of term diathesis in the fields of medicine and psychiatry dates back to the 1800s; however, the diathesis-stress model was not introduced and utilized to describe the development of psychopathology until it was used to explain schizophrenia in the 1960s.[1] The diathesis-stress model is used in many fields of psychology, specifically for studying the development of psychopathology.[5] It is useful for the purposes of understanding the interplay of nature and nurture in the susceptibility to psychological disorders throughout the lifespan.[5] Diathesis–stress models can also assist in determining who will develop a disorder and who will not.[6] For example, in the context of depression, the diathesis-stress model can help explain why Person A may become depressed while Person B does not, even when exposed to the same stressors.[5] More recently, the diathesis-stress model has been used to explain why some individuals are more at risk for developing a disorder than others.[7] For example, children who have a family history of depression are generally more vulnerable to developing a depressive disorder themselves. A child who has a family history of depression and who has been exposed to a particular stressor, such as exclusion or rejection by his or her peers, would be more likely to develop depression than a child with a family history of depression that has an otherwise positive social network of peers.[7] The diathesis-stress model has also served as useful in explaining other poor (but non-clinical) developmental outcomes.

Protective factors, such as positive social networks or high self-esteem, can counteract the effects of stressors and prevent or curb the effects of disorder.[8] Many psychological disorders have a window of vulnerability, during which time an individual is more likely to develop disorder than others.[9] Diathesis–stress models are often conceptualized as multi-causal developmental models, which propose that multiple risk factors over the course of development interact with stressors and protective factors contributing to normal development or psychopathology.[10] The differential susceptibility hypothesis is a recent theory that has stemmed from the diathesis-stress model.[11]

Question 60

Brain injury that includes the region of the left superior temporal gyrus adjacent to the auditory cortex results in deficits characterized by

Answer 60

Grammatical speech but poor language comprehension

Question 61

Gene-environment Correlation

Answer 61

Gene-environment correlations (or rGE) can arise by both causal and non-causal mechanisms.[1] Of principal interest are those causal mechanisms, which indicate genetic control over environmental exposure. Genetic variants influence environmental exposure indirectly via behavior. Three causal mechanisms giving rise to gene-environment correlations have been described. [2]

(i) Passive gene-environment correlation refers to the association between the genotype a child inherits from her parents and the environment in which the child is raised. Parents create a home environment that is influenced by their own heritable characteristics. Biological parents also pass on genetic material to their children. When the children’s genotype also influences their behavioral or cognitive outcomes, the result can be a spurious relationship between environment and outcome. For example, because parents who have histories of antisocial behavior (which is moderately heritable) are at elevated risk of abusing their children, a case can be made for saying that maltreatment may be a marker for genetic risk that parents transmit to children rather than a causal risk factor for children’s conduct problems.[3]
(ii) Evocative (or reactive) gene-environment correlation happens when an individual’s (heritable) behavior evokes an environmental response. For example, the association between marital conflict and depression may reflect the tensions that arise when engaging with a depressed spouse rather than a causal effect of marital conflict on risk for depression.
(iii) Active gene-environment correlation occurs when an individual possesses a heritable propensity to select environmental exposure. For example, individuals who are characteristically extroverted may seek out very different social environments than those who are shy and withdrawn.
Gene-environment correlation can also arise from non-causal mechanisms, including evolutionary processes and behavioral ‘contamination’ of the environmental measure. Evolutionary processes, such as genetic drift and natural selection, can cause allele frequencies to differ between populations. For example, exposure to malaria-bearing mosquitoes over many generations may have caused the higher allele frequency among certain ethnic groups for the sickle hemoglobin (HbS) allele, a recessive mutation that causes sickle-cell disease but confers resistance against malaria.[4] In this way, HbS genotype has become associated with the malarial environment.

Question 62

Risky Shift

Answer 62

Decision making in groups do not always shift in a more risky direction. The risky shift is seen as an example of group polarization

Question 63

When psychology first emerged as a seperate discipline, it was distinguished from philosophy primarily by its emphasis on…

Answer 63

Empirical Data

Question 64

PKU

Cystic Fibrosis

Tay-Sachs

Answer 64

All result from recessive genetic disorders

Question 65

Cystic Fibrosis

Answer 65

The hallmark signs and symptoms of cystic fibrosis are salty tasting skin,[7] poor growth and poor weight gain despite a normal food intake,[8] accumulation of thick, sticky mucus,[9] frequent chest infections, and coughing or shortness of breath.[10]

Cystic fibrosis (also known as CF or mucoviscidosis) is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder that affects most critically the lungs, and also the pancreas, liver, and intestine. It is characterised by abnormal transport of chloride and sodium across an epithelium, leading to thick, viscous secretions.[1]

Question 66

Self-efficacy

Answer 66

Concept developed by Albert Bandura

Question 67

Self-serving attributional bias and locus

Answer 67

Investigators of the self-serving attributional bias typically compare attributions for success and attributions for failure in terms of which of the following dimensions: LOCUS

Question 68

Instrumental Aggression

Answer 68

Goal-oriented aggression

Ex.: a thief harms the store clerk so he can steal the money

The oppositive of instrumental aggression is affective (emotional) and hostile aggression/retaliatory aggression

Question 69

Depth Perception

Answer 69

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binocular_depth_cues#Binocular_cues

Question 70

Language and Sound

Question 71

A correlation of .40

Answer 71

You can conclude, from this, that 40% of the variance is attributable to the correlation (e.g., .4 correlation between intelligence and heritability means that 40% of the variance of intelligence is due to heritability)

Question 72

Clustering and free recall

Question 73

Working Memory

Answer 73

The capacities of the 2 different components of working memory are independent of each other (i.e., spatial skills and verbal skills will not interfere with each other)

Working memory is the system that actively holds multiple pieces of transitory information in the mind, where they can be manipulated. This involves execution of verbal and nonverbal tasks—such as reasoning and comprehension—and makes them available for further information-processing.[1] Working memory can be partly distinguished from short term memory, depending on how these two forms of memory are defined.[2] Working memory includes subsystems that store and manipulate visual images or verbal information, as well as a central executive that coordinates the subsystems. It includes visual representation of the possible moves, and your awareness of the flow of information into and out of memory, all stored for a limited amount of time.[3] Working memory tasks require monitoring (i.e., manipulation of information or behaviors) as part of completing goal-directed actions in the setting of interfering processes and distractions. The cognitive processes needed to achieve this include the executive and attention control of short-term memory, which permit interim integration, processing, disposal, and retrieval of information. These processes are sensitive to age: working memory is associated with cognitive development, and research shows that its capacity tends to decline with old age. Working memory is a theoretical concept central both to cognitive psychology and neuroscience. In addition, neurological studies demonstrate a link between working memory and learning and attention.

Theories exist both regarding the theoretical structure of working memory and the role of specific parts of the brain involved in working memory. Research identifies the frontal cortex, parietal cortex, anterior cingulate, and parts of the basal ganglia as crucial. The neural basis of working memory has been derived from lesion experiments in animals and functional imaging upon humans.

Question 74

Sociometric Status

Answer 74

Sociometric status is a measurement that reflects the degree to which someone is liked or disliked by their peers as a group.

[edit] Developmental psychologyIn developmental psychology, this system has been used to examine children’s status in peer groups, its stability over time, the characteristics that determine it, and the long-term implications of one’s popularity or rejection by peers.

The most commonly used sociometric system, developed by Coie & Dodge, 1988, asks children to rate how much they like or dislike each of their classmates and uses these responses to classify them into five groups:[1]

Popular children - Children are designated as popular if they receive many positive nominations.
Rejected children - Children are designated as rejected if they receive many negative nominations and few positive nominations.
Neglected children - Children are designated as neglected if they receive few positive or negative nominations. These children are not especially liked or disliked by peers, and tend to go unnoticed.
Average children - Children are designated as average if they receive an average number of both positive and negative nominations.
Controversial children - Children are designated as controversial if they receive many positive and many negative nominations. They are said to be liked by quite a few children, but also disliked by quite a few.

Question 75

Piaget’s Cognitive Development

Answer 75

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piaget%27s_theory_of_cognitive_development

Question 76

Cognitive declines that affect many people after middle age

Answer 76

Are likely caused by decreased processing speed

Question 77

Experts in a specialized area solving complex problems

Answer 77

Develop superior chunking routines for processing the specialized information

Question 78

False Alarms and Misses

Question 79

Bilateral lesion of orbitofrontal cortex

Answer 79

Patient will respond appropriately to hypothetical moral dilemnas, but will fail to exhibit normal social behavior in her own life

Question 80

Factorial Design

Answer 80

Has 2 or more independent variables and 1 dependent variable

Question 81

Amestic Disorder

Answer 81

Has a known organic basis (which means that it’s known what causes it, which in this case would be traumatic brain injury)

Question 82

Pervasive developmental disorder

Answer 82

Many have comorbid diagnosis of mental retardation

Many can be mainstreamed into regular education classes for some academic subjects

Many exhibit neurological anomalies

Many have experienced prenatal or perinatal trauma

Question 83

Activational Hormones

Answer 83

Can act upon brains of adult animals to alter the frequency or intensity of, but not the form of, their sexual behavior

Question 84

The view that innate factors have an important effect on language acquisition

Answer 84

Is backed up by the fact that linguistic cues that are available in the environment are too limited to enable language learning

Question 85

Hostile Attribution Bias

Answer 85

Hostile attribution biasHostile attribution bias (HAB) has been defined as an interpretive bias wherein individuals exhibit a tendency to interpret others’ ambiguous behaviors as hostile, rather than benign .[8][9] For example, if a child witnesses two other children whispering and assumes they are talking about him/her, that child makes an attribution of hostile intent, even though the other children’s behavior was potentially benign. Research has indicated that there is an association between hostile attribution bias and aggression, such that people who are more likely to interpret someone else’s behavior as hostile are also more likely to engage in aggressive behavior.[32][33] See the following section on aggression for more details on this association.

Question 86

Robber’s Cave Experiment

Answer 86

Muzafer Sherif’s Robber’s Cave Expirment is a classic demonstration of the effects of mutual interdependence

Question 87

Acoustical Code and Working Memory

Answer 87

Participants make more errors in recalling letter pairs that sound alike (B and C) than in pairs that look alike (E and F)

Question 88

Working Memory

Answer 88

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memory

Question 89

Kathryn Bock

Answer 89

Research shows that specific syntactic constructions can prime later syntactic constructions. This incidcates that hwen people speak, they use the same sentence structures in later sentences that they heard in earlier sentences

Question 90

Smell and flavor

Answer 90

Smell is important for sensing flavor

Question 91

In an unattended message

Answer 91

Listener is most likely to notice the change from a woman’s voice to a man’s voice

Question 92

Sociotechnical Systems

Answer 92

Work has been redesigned to self-directed teams of workers is an example of a sociotechnical principle
 Sociotechnical systems (STS) in organizational development is an approach to complex organizational work design that recognizes the interaction between people and technology in workplaces. The term also refers to the interaction between society's complex infrastructures and human behaviour. In this sense, society itself, and most of its substructures, are complex sociotechnical systems. The term sociotechnical systems was coined in the 1960s by Eric Trist, Ken Bamforth and Fred Emery, who were working as consultants at the Tavistock Institute in London.
 Sociotechnical systems pertains to theory regarding the social aspects of people and society and technical aspects of organizational structure and processes. Here, technical does not necessarily imply material technology. The focus is on procedures and related knowledge, i.e. it refers to the ancient Greek term logos. "Technical" is a term used to refer to structure and a broader sense of technicalities. Sociotechnical refers to the interrelatedness of social and technical aspects of an organization or the society as a whole.[1] Sociotechnical theory therefore is about joint optimization, with a shared emphasis on achievement of both excellence in technical performance and quality in people's work lives. Sociotechnical theory, as distinct from sociotechnical systems, proposes a number of different ways of achieving joint optimisation. They are usually based on designing different kinds of organisation, ones in which the relationships between socio and technical elements lead to the emergence of productivity and wellbeing.

Question 93

Wilhelm Wundt

Answer 93

Thought that a perceptual experience could be analyzed into its separate component elements

Question 94

Cognitive psychology in 1950’s and 1960’s

Answer 94

Cognitive psychology became a powerful force, and one of the things that helped to spur this “Cognitive Revolution” forward was the development of digital computers

Question 95

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Answer 95

Criticized because he assumed that studying any convenient example of learning or memory produces results that generalize to all examples

Question 96

Medial Amygdala

Answer 96

Inhibits parental behavior in rodents

Question 97

Pluralistic Ignorance

Answer 97

Example: child screaming, Phil looks and sees that other people aren’t doing anyting and look calm and unconcerned, so he doesn’t do anything or help the child either
In social psychology, pluralistic ignorance is a situation where a majority of group members privately reject a norm, but assume incorrectly that most others accept it,[1] also described as ‘no one believes, but everyone thinks that everyone believes.”[2] Lack of public opposition then helps perpetuate a norm that may be, in fact, disliked by most people.
Pluralistic ignorance can be contrasted with the false consensus effect. In pluralistic ignorance, people privately disdain but publicly support a norm (or a belief), while the false consensus effect causes people to wrongly assume that most people think like them, while in reality most people do not think like them (and express the disagreement openly). For instance, pluralistic ignorance may lead a student to drink alcohol excessively because she believes that everyone else does that, while in reality everyone else also wishes they could avoid binge drinking, but no one expresses that due to the fear of being ostracized.[3] A false consensus for the same situation would mean that the student believes that most other people do not enjoy excessive drinking, while in fact most other people do enjoy that and openly express their opinion about it.
The term pluralistic ignorance was coined by Daniel Katz and Floyd H. Allport in 1931.[1] Krech and Crutchfield’s described it, in (1948, pp. 388–89), as the situation where ‘no one believes, but everyone thinks that everyone believes.’“[2]

Question 98

Adults and reading

Answer 98

Vary the least with regard to the number of letters perceived during a given eye duration

Question 99

Emotional Disclosure and Immune functioning

Answer 99

Research indicates that expressing negative emotions is associated with increased immune function, whereas inhibiting negtative emotions is associated with decreased immune functioning

Question 100

Self-concept

Answer 100

Differentiated self-concept means that someone describes themselves with different self-attributes in relation to different groups (their family, friends, etc.)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-concept

Question 101

Implicit vs. Explicit Memory

Answer 101

Function as different neurological basis from each other