All Cards Flashcards
ƒeWhat are the precise definitions for lewis acid/lewis base?
Lewis acid: electron pair acceptor
Lewis base: electron pair donor
What is specific gravity?
Ratio of density of a substance compared to density of water
What does ρ (rho) represent?
Density
What are STP conditions? What is standard state? When is each used?
STP: 273 K, 1 ATM, used for ideal gas law stuff
Standard state: 298 K, 1 ATM, 1M solutions. pure solids/liquids, used for thermodynamic calculations
Whats the volume of 1 mol of an ideal gas at STP?
22.4 liters
What is the Formal Charge of Nitrate?
-1 (NO3 1-)
What does having a high oxidation potential entail?
A higher tendency to be oxidized; i.e., A higher tendency to lose electrons
When a transition metal becomes cationic, form which orbital are the electrons removed from?
The s orbital, rather than the d orbital. For example, Ni 2+ would love electrons from the 4s orbital rather than the 3d orbital, even though the 3d orbital is in theory higher in energy
VSEPR THEORY: Order the set from greatest to least repulsion: LP-LP, BP-LP, BP-BP
As written: LP-LP has the greatest repulsion, then BP-LP, then BP-BP
What is the Solubility Product Constant, and what does it describe?
Ksp= [A+]a[B+]b, A+ being cation in aqueous solution, B= being anion in aqueous solution. Describes the equilibrium between AB(s) ←→ A(aq)+ B(aq)
Which is the more oxidized compound; one that ends with -ric or one that ends with -ous? (ferric vs ferrous)
-Ric is more oxidized (remember the mnemonic- ric ate o)
What does a mass spectrometer measure?
Mass to charge ratio
What occurs in beta+ decay?
A proton converts to a neutron, and emits a positron
What occurs in beta- decay?
A neutron converts to a proton, and ejects an electron
What occurs in electron capture?
An inner shell electron is absorbed into the nucleus, followed by the conversion of a proton to a neutron.
What occurs in alpha decay?
a nucleus of two protons and two neutrons (helium) are ejected from the nucleus
What occurs in gamma decay?
Nucleus changes from higher to lower energy state and releases a photon, but the #of protons and neutrons remains the same
What is the difference between paramagnetic and diamagnetic species?
Paramagnetic: At least one unpaired electron, attracted to magnets. Diamagnetic: no unpaired electrons, slightly repelled by magnets.
In what order are the p orbitals filled?
Px (ml=-1) , Py (ml=0), Pz ml= +1)
How do you find number of d electrons in a complex ion?
d electrons= Group # (column number) - oxidation state
What is the equation for the energy of an electron in hydrogen?
E= -2.178e-18 (Z^2/n^2)
What is copper’s ground state electron configuration?
[Ar}4s1 3d10 (Will prefer to fill d orbital before filling s orbital)
What is chromium’s ground state electron configuration?
[Ar] 4s1 3d5 (will prefer to half fill d orbital before filling s orbital)
When Calculating Cell potential (ERxn), do you multiple Ereduction/EOxidation based on how many electrons are changed?
No; Ereduction/EOxidation are both intrinsic characteristics; therefore, just use the standard reduction potentials in the table without considering # of electrons exchanged.
Between the anode/cathode, where does oxidation/reduction occur?
Oxidation occurs at the Anode, Reduction occurs at the Cathode
What does a high oxidation state entail?
Entails a loss of electrons. For example, Calcium tends to have a higher oxidation state (+2) than Sodium (+1)
What are the molecular formulas of sulfate, sulfite, and sulfide?
Sulfate: SO4 2-, Sulfite: SO3 2-, Sulfide: S 2-
What is the equation you use to calculate the pH of a buffer solution?
Henderson hasselbach; pH= pkA + log([A-]/[HA])
What is the buffering range (pH at which a buffer is most effective)?
desired solution pH +/- 1 pH of the acid pka
In a diprotic acid titration, what is the formula to calculate the pH at the first equivalence point?
pH= (pK1 + pK2)/2
What microscopic measurements are the pressure of a gas proportional to?
Collision force and collision frequency
Which elements have d orbitals?
Any element from the third row onwards (highest principle quantum electron at least n=3)
What is the difference between electron geometry and molecular geometry?
Electron geometry: include lone pairs (h2o is tetrahedral electron geometry)
molecular geometry: do not include lone pairs (h2o is bent molecular geometry)
What does coordination number of a complex ion refer to?
The # of bonds to the central metal ion, NOT the # of ligands attached to the central metal ion
In complex ions, do metal ions act as lewis acids or lewis bases?
Lewis acids, because they have an empty orbital
What is the definition of boiling point?
Temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure
What are the only atoms (other than hydrogen) that can engage in hydrogen bonding?
N, O, F
What is raoults law, and what does it describe?
Pvapor= Xi Pvapor (pure); xi= mole fraction of liquid in solution.
Describes the contributing vapor pressure of a miscible liquid in solution
What is the critical point in a phase change diagram?
The highest pressure and temperature at which a liquid can be observed; beyond this point, you cannot distinguish between a gas or a liquid, so anything in that region is referred to as a a supercritical fluid
How does the density of a supercritical fluid compare to liquid and gas?
Density between liquid and gas
A gas is most ideal under what pressure and what temperature?
Under low pressure and high temperature
What are the 5 general solubility rules?
- ) Most salts composed of a +1 cation (excluding transition metals) and a -1 anion are soluble in water
- ) Nitrate (NO3 -) salts are water soluble
- Most salts containing sulfate anions (SO4 2-) with +1 cations (excluding transition metals) are soluble
- ) Most salts with 2- or 3- anions (with the exception of sulfate) are insoluble
- ) Most oxide (O 2-) and hydroxide (OH-) salts are only slightly soluble. KOH and NaOH are exceptions.
What is the definition of molar solubility?
Maximum number of moles of solid that can dissolve to make one liter of solution
What does carbonic acid (H2CO3) decompose into?
Water and Carbon Dioxide
What is the most accurate way to measure pH?
pH meter
What does repolarization mean?
Any movement that attempts to return the membrane potential to its resting membrane potential, regardless of whether it is coming from a more positive origin or a more negative origin
Do sympathetic or parasympathetic nerves have secondary ganglia that are closer to the target organ?
Parasympathetic nerves
What neurotransmitters do each of the two neurons use from CNS to effector organ for parasympathetic nerves?
1st (preganglionic) : acetylcholine, 2nd (postganglionic) : acetylcholine
What neurotransmitters do each of the two neurons use from CNS to effector organ for sympathetic nerves?
1st: acetylcholine, 2nd: norepenephrine
What makes cardiac muscles unique from smooth muscles or skeletal muscles?
They have intercalated disks, which prevents cells from separating during contraction and allows for synchronized contraction.
What is the purpose of T-Tubules in muscles?
To bring the depolarizing current deep through the muscle fiber near the sarcoplasmic reticulum
Which side product (“detour”) of glycolysis is also used to promotes the oxygen saturation curve observed in hemoglobin?
2-3 BPG
Do arteries or veins contain valves? Why?
Veins, because unlike arteries the pressure is not strong enough to maintain unidirectional flow
How does the resistance of a vessel vary with vessel radius?
Decreasing a vessel radius by two will increase vessel resistance by 16
(Poisuelles equation: Flow rate proportional to r^4. Flow rate inversely proportional to vessel resistance)
Which cell does not have a mitochondria?
Red Blood Cells
What does distensibility refer to?
How flexible a vein or artery is.
Are veins or arteries more distensibile?
Veins
What muscle is the primary effector of breathing?
Diaphragm
Which group of pacemaker cells directly triggers depolarization and is considered the pacemaker of the heart?
SA (sinoatrial) node
What are two conditions where RBC’s are too small and too large, respectively?
MIcrocytic anemia, macrocytic anemia
Do vitamin compositions last longer in blood plasma or blood cells?
Blood plasma; the plasma is cleared out constantly by the kidneys, where as the composition of the RBC reflects the vitamin intake over its 120 day lifespan
What value/number dictates whether flow is turbulent or laminar?
Reynolds number; flow is turbulent above a reynolds number of 3500
What are the functions of schwann cells?
Myelination, maintenence, and regeneration of PNS axons
What functions are Glutamate responsible for?
Excitatory signals; cognition, memory, and learning
Do cell membranes become more or less fluid with more unsaturated phospholipids
More fluid with more unsatured phospholipids
What brain activity does fMRI measure?
Blood flow
What is the difference between single unit and multiunit smooth muscle cells
Single unit: electrically coupled by gap junctions, single stimulation of one cell will stimulate all adjacent cells
Multiunit: not electrically coupled by gap junction
What is the structure of urea?
How is a majority of the CO2 in blood transported?
Carbonic acid
What is the approximate pH of the stomach?
1.5-3.5
Which cells of what organ secrete insulin?
Beta cells of the pancreas
What is the role of the hepatic portal?
A veinous system that returns blood from the digestive tract back to the liver
What cells of what organ secrete glucagon?
Alpha cells of the pancreas
What is the function and mechanism of aldosterone?
To promote reabsorption of sodium and secretion of K+ in the nephron (because action is via sodium potassium pumps, which pumps 3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ in) ; acts at DCT and collecting ducts, stimulating them to reaborb sodium
Where is aldosterone secrete from?
The cortex of the adrenal gland, above the kidney
What is the function and mechanism of ADH?
To promote reabsorption of water in the collecting duct via insertion of more aquaporins
Where is ADH secreted from?
The posterior pituitary, which is stimulated by the hypothalamus
In the PCT of the nephron, how is sodium transported across the apical membrane (membrane lining the PCT)?
Through symports, such as glucose/sodium or amino acid/sodium
What effect does vasoconstriction of the afferent kidney arterioles have on glomerular filtrationrate?
Will decreases GFR
What effect does vasoconstriction of the efferent kidney arterioles have on glomerular filtrationrate?
Increases glomerular filtration rate
What does the renin-angiotensin system do?
Increase blood volume (to increase blood pressure)
What steroid hormone does the renin-angiotensin system activate?
Aldosterone
Which muscles of the urinary tract contract/dilate during urination?
The detruser muscles contract, and the two urethal tract sphincters relax
What forms does a spermatogenia go through as it matures?
Spermatogenia (stem cell)— (Mitosis, one remains a stem cell)—-> Primary spermatocyte —(Meiosis 1)—> Secondary spermatocyte —- (meiosis 2)—> spermatids —- (transformation via formation of acrosome, loss of cytoplasm)—> spermatozoa
Which cells are spermatogenia always in contact in as they mature?
Sertoli Cells
What are the two compartments of the seminiferous tubes called, and what are they separated by?
Basal compartment, luminal compartment, separated by tight junction
As the spermatogenia matures, from which comparment to which compartment in the seminferous tubes does it travel?
From the basal comparment (on the outside) to the luminal compartment (at the center)
What step in oogenesis are oocytes arrested until puberty/ovulation?
The meiotic division between the primary oocyte and secondary oocyte, where it is stuck in prophase of meiosis 1
What phase are oocytes arrested in prior to fertilization?
Arrested in Metaphse of Meiosis 2, where it will only finish meiosis 2 and become an ovum after fertilization
What structures do eggs develop in in the ovaries?
Granulosa cells. Granulosa cells + ooctye= follicle cell
As the follicle progresses, what causes its expansion and eventual rupture?
Continual growth of the follicle causes an LH surge which mediates rupture. Expansion of the antrum (fluid cavity formed from fluid from granulosa cells). Rupture itself is additionally mediated by enzymes that weaken the cell wall
Which hormone signals for the rupture of the follicle wall to release the secondary oocyte?
Lutinizing hormone (LH).
At what point in meiosis 1 is the primary oocyte arrested?
prophase
At what point in meiosis 2 is the secondary oocyte arrested?
Metaphase
Which compound directly stimulates contraction of the smooth muscle of the uterus, causing explusion of the uterine lining?
Prostaglandins
Which hormones prepare the endometrium for implantation?
Estrogen and progesterone
Which hormone inhibits uterine contractions and promotes cervix contriction to prevent expulsion of the implanted embryo?
Progesterone
What are the functions of leydig cells, and what is the female equivalent cell called?
In males, activated by LH, thus converting cholesterol to testosterone. Female counterpart is called Theca cells
What is the second half of the menstrual cycle called? What occurs in this half?
Luteal phase; egg is released from follicle and implants into endometrium, the remaining follicular cells (granulosa) becomes a corpus luteum, which continues to release progesterone and estrogen
Estrogen and progesterone released from the corpus luteum has what effect on LH and FSH secretion?
Suppresses LH and FSH secretion
What can be said about progesterone and estrogen levels through pregnancy?
They increase steadily through pregnancy
What does menses refer to?
The shedding of blood/uterine lining during menstruation
What hormone stimulates the growth of the ovarian follicle?
FSH
What hormones do granulosa cells secrete?
Estrogen (early in cycle), then inhibin and progesterone (later in the cycle)
What affect does LH have on the theca cells of the ovarian follicle?
Convert cholesteral to testosterone, which is then fed to the granulosa cells so they can produce estrogen
What is the luteal surge caused by?
Continued growth of the follicle increases number of granulosa cells, which continually release estrogen. When estrogen levels are low, there is negative feedback on FSH and LH release. However, at very high levels of estrogen, there is actually positive feedback on LH secretion, causing luteal surge. Inhibin also released by granulosa cells simulatneously inhibit FSH release.
What is inhibin secreted by, and what is its effect?
Secreted by mature follicles prior to ovulation. Causes suppression of FSH release from anterior pituitary
What is the primary hormone the corpus luteum secretes?
Progesterone
What induces the natural atrophy of the corpus luteum?
Corpus luteum requires FSH and LH to maintain itself, but suppresses both hormones via its estrogen and progesterone release
What organ and what cell type does gluconeogenesis occur in?
Hepatocyte cells of the liver
Which hormones are required to maintain the endometrium?
Estrogen and progesterone both
What does low levels of estrogen release from the follicle inhibit?
FSH
What does high levels of estrogen release from the follicle promote?
LH release
What are endothelial cells?
Cells that line the inside of the cardiovascular system (arteries, veins, heart) in a one cell thick layer
What is responsible for the contraction/relaxation of blood vessels?
Smooth muscle
Which structure releases corticosteroids?
Adrenal Cortex
What is the pathway of the HPA axis? (organs + what is released from each organ)
Hypothalamus (releases corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)) -> pituitary (adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACH)) -> adrenal cortex (cortisol)
What two compounds are released during low blood sugar and from which organs? What is their target organ?
Epinephrine (from adrenal medulla) and glucagon (from pancreas). Target is the liver so that it may begin releasing glucose
Which lobe of the pituitary contains neurons projecting from the hypothalamus that directly release hormones into the bloodstream?
Posterior Pituitary
Which lobe of the pituitary has neuron projections from the hypothalamus first release releasing factors, which then cause the pituitary endocrine cells to release hormones?
Anterior pituitary
Which lobe of the pituitary only releases direct (non tropic) hormones? What are the two hormones this lobe releases?
Posterior PItuitary (releases only ADH and oxytocin, which are both direct hormones)
What does the binding of Ca 2+ to troponin directly cause?
Exposes myosin binding sites on the actin, allowing for the power stroke
What event immediately precedes the power stroke in actin/myosin interaction?
The dissociation of Pi from myosin
What is the function of calcitonin?
Lowers blood calcium levels by suppressing osteoclast activity (thus, preventing osteoclast bone breakdown) and increasing calcium secreted by urine
Which hormone has the opposite effect to calcitonin? What is this effect?c
Parathyroid hormone; increases blood calcium concentration by promoting osteoclast activity
What precursor do all steroid hormones arise from?
Cholesterol
Which Hemisphere of the brain is specialized for langauge and speech production?st
Left hemisphere
What is instinctual drift?
The tendency of animals to revert back to instinctual behaviors
What view does an individual with external locus of control belief?
Successes and failures result from external factors beyond their control
What are the symptoms of PTSD?
Hyperarousal, intrusive symptoms (nightmares), avoiding reminders of trauma, negative thoughts and moods. and emotional numbing
What is absolute threshold?
Intensity value at which an individual is able to detect a stimulus 50 percent of the time
What is Signal Detection Theory?
The ability to properly detect or reject a certain stimulus in light of distractions. There are four possible ways a participant in an SDT study can respond: a hit, a false alarm, a miss, and a correct rejection
What is Role Conflict?
When multiple competing and incompatible demands are placed upon an individual
What are the tree stages of General Adaptation Syndrome?
Alarm, resistance, exhaustion
What is General Adaptation Syndrome a response to?
Stress
What Does Humanistic Psychology Therapy focus on?
Higher aspects of human nature, such as self-actualization (achieving one’s full potential) and personal growth. An optimistic view of human nature that people have an innate drive towards self improvement
What does Cognitive Behavioral Therapy focus on?
Attempting to change negative thoughts/beliefs and maladaptive behaviors; replacing destructive thoughts/behaviors with healthy ones
What does Psychoanalytic therapy focus on?
Uncovering how unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood shapes behaviors
What is external validity concerned with?
Generalization; if the observed relationship applies outside the experiment
What is internal validity concerned with
Causality; if the change in the independent variable is really causing a change in the dependent variable
Does the dorsal or ventral horn contain the cell bodies of motor neurons?
Ventral horns
Does the dorsal or ventral horn contain the cell bodies of sensory neurons?
Dorsal horn
Which components of the brain comprise the metencephalon
Cerebellum, pons
Which components of the brain comprise the myelencephalon
Medulla
Which components of the brain comprise the mesencephalon
Tectum (inferior colliculi, superior collucili) and the tegmentum (substnatia nigra, red nucleus)
What parts of the brain compose the diencephalon
Thalamus, hypothalamus
What does damage to the cerebullum result in?
Disruption of fine motor skills
What does the cerebellum do?
Coordinate balance, fine motor skills, equillibrium, coordination
What are the four lobes of the brain and which senses/functions are they associated with?
Frontal: motor
Parietal: Somatosensory
Occipital: vision
Temporal: Auditory
What is the moro reflex?
A startle reflex in infants that is caused by a loud sound or sudden movement and involves spreading out arms, throwing back head and opening hands
What are Phosphodiesterases responsible for?
Break phosphodiester bonds, such as those found in ATP and cAMP. Hydrolyzes cAMP, so inhibits cAMP pathways
Where is the amygdala located (telencephalon, diencephalon, metencephalon, etc)
Telencephalon
What is a quasiexperiment?
A study in which there are certain experimental groups, but individuals within those groups cannot be randomly assigned.
What is the weber fraction?
Just noticeable differences in stimuli are a function and ratio of the current intensity stimulus
Weber fraction= (Just noticeable difference)/Intensity
What is the difference between tonic and phasic firing?
Tonic firing: long and sustained response
Phasic Firing: Transient immediate response
Are nociceptors tonic or phasic?
Tonic; perception of pain comes on slowly after application of stimulus, and may sometimes persist even after stimulus is removed
What is the figure ground relationship?
How visual perception processing begins first by distinguishing figure (the object ) from its surroundings (the ground). The vase illusion takes advantage of this
Do cones facillitate phototopic or scotopic vision
Cones work in high light conditions and allow us to see color; therefore, they facilitate phototopic vision
Are rods or cones responsible for edge perception?
Rods
What type of visual perception do parvocellular cells participate in?
Spatial resolution of an object; primarily receieve input from cones and are sensitive to color and fine pattern details
What type of visual perception are magnocellular cells responsible for?
Temporal resolution of an object; receive input from rods and are sensitive to movement
What layers in the striate cortex do parvocellular ganglionic cells project to?
Top four layers
In the basilar membrane, where are the neurons that are most sensitive to low frequency sound located?
At the tip (apex of the membrane)
Tonotopy is further preserved as neurons are projected to the auditory cortex. Are neurons that receive high frequencies deeper or shallower in the sylvian fissure?
Deeper
Is the utricle or saccule of the otolith organs in the vestibular system responsible for detection of horizantal, translational movement?
Utricle
What organs of the vestibular system are responsible for head rotation?
Semicircular canals
Which temperature/pain nerve fibers are responsible for sharp, acute pain? What is their myelination/diameter?
Adelta fibers, myelinated, medium diamater?
Which temperature/pain nerve fibers are responsible for slow, dull pain? What is their myelination/diameter?
C fibers, unmyelinated, small diameter
Why do odorants often have the ability to affect our moods?
Because olfactory information does not pass through the thalamus to primary processing centers, but rather is direclty relayed to the limbic system after reaching the primary olfactory cortex
What are the four gestalt principles? What is an example of each?
Gestalt principles demonstrate how the sum of perceptual parts differs from the perceived whole.
What is interposition?
A monocular perceptual cue; when one object seems to obscure another, it can be assumed that one is closer
What is multimodal sensory integration?
How completely disparate senses come together in the CNS to produce meaningful perception experiences
What is the thalamic relay nucleus for the visual system?
Lateral geniculate nucleus
What is the thalamic relay nucleus for the auditory system?
Medial Geniculate Nucleus
What is a neuroleptic associated with?
Tranquilizing, depressed nerve function
What is generativity vs stagnation in Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development, and when does it occur?
Generativity: Being able to do what one feels is contributing to society, thus gaining the sense they are part of a bigger picture
Stagnation: Failing to contribute, leading to feeling unproductive
This conflict usually occurs around 45-60
What are Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, and what ages do they correspond with?
- ) Sensorimotor, birth through 18-24 months
- )Preoperational, toddler through early childhood
- ) Concrete operational, 7-11
- ) Formal operational, adolesence through adulthood
What does place theory refer to?
A theory of hearing that states that our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane
What is shaping in operant conditioning?
A method of training that reinforces successive approximations towards a desired response; i.e, want pigeon to play a tune on keyboard, first key pecked pigeon rewarded (positive reinforcement), next pigeon is only rewarded after two keys are pecked
What is a fixed ratio schedule?
Operant conditioning; Reinforcement only occurs after a fixed number of responses
What is a fixed interval schedule?
Operant conditioning: reinforcement occurs at a fixed interval of time completely independent of correct response (i.e. paychecks every two weeks)
What is a variable ratio schedule?
Operant conditioning: reinforcement occurs after a variable number of correct responses
What are the four components for short term memory, and what do they do?
Phonological loop: temporary storage of auditory information
Visuospatial sketchpad: Temporary storage of visual information
Episodic buffer: Integrate representations from loop and sketchpad in ordered timely and coherent manner
Central executive: controlling and coordinating the activities of the other three stm systems
What are the two types of implicit memory, and what do they refer to?
Procedural: Like how to ride a bike
Priming: Previous knowledge affects how you perceive new information; i.e., lots of exposures to hares in your line of work, when someone says “hair” you think of a bunny and not the stuff on your head
What does “encoding” refer to in memory?
The input of information from physical stimuli into memory (either short term or long term),
What does “chunking” refer to in memory?
An encoding strategy that organizes new information into groups to help you remember them better; more effective than simple rote memorization
What does “retrieval” refer to in memory?
Accessing stored memories, moving them from long term memory back into working (short term) memory
What is the serial position effect in memory?
In a list of items, you are more likely to remember the first and last items
Which part of the brain is responsible for memory association and retrieval?
Hippocampus
What is the difference between elaborative and maintenance rehearsal?
Maintenance: rote rehearsal, simple repeating
Elaborative: relating the rehearsal of each items to other things you know, such as mnemonics
Which sort of classical conditioning is most effective?
Delayed conditioning, where the conditioned stimulus is presented before the unconditioned stimulus and contineues throughout the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus
(aka: bell, then dog food)
What is overshadowing in conditioning?
When two stimuli are both associated with a response, but the more salient one will weaken the association between the less salient one and the response
What is the difference between reliability and validity?
Reliability: consistency of an study (same conditions/subjects will have same outcomes in multiple trials)
Validity: accuracy of a study (whether the results are actually correct)
What is the difference between an Imine and an enamine?
What is the general structure of an imide?
What are epimers?
Two stereoisomers that differ in the arrangement of groups on a single carbon (opposite configuration at only one stereocenter out of at least two)
What is the formula for specific rotation?
What are do Z and E configurations imply in terms of adjacent/ diagonal groups?
Z: highest priority groups are adjacent
E: highest priority groups are diagonal
What is considered a unit of unsaturation on an alkene?
A double bond or a ring
What structural component in a molecule is UV-Vis used to detect ?
Double bonds
The oxarine functional group is also known as
The epoxide group
In trans decalin, is are the connecting carbons (bonds extending laterally from the carbons shared by both rings) in an axial or equatorial conformation?
Equatorial
In cis decalin, is are the connecting carbons (bonds extending laterally from the carbons shared by both rings) in an axial or equatorial conformation?
One axial, one equatorial
How can you tell the difference between alpha and beta anomers of sugar monomers? How does this relate to naming glycosidic linkages?
For D Sugars only:
If anomeric -OH facing down, alpha. If up, beta.
To be more precise: if trans with c6 carbon, alpha. If Cis, beta
For linkages, look at the anomeric carbon that is participating in the linkage. If it is alpha, it is an alpha glycosidic bond. If both anomeric carbons are participating in the linkage, then use the nomenclature alpha-1 beta-2 linkage, for example
How can you tell the difference between L and D sugars?
“Flatten” out cyclic molecule into fischer projection. If carbon 5 (anomeric carbon is carbon 1) has -OH group on right side, then it is a D sugar. If its on the left side, then its an L sugar.
What is the iupac name for this compound?
Butyl (the alkyl group after the ester) ethanoate (the carbons leading up to the carbonyl)
What is the strecker synthesis?
From an aldehyde, you can synthesize an amino acid via an aminonitrile intermediate. You get a mixture of both L and D enantiomers because the aldehyde reaction is not stereospecific.
What information does a chromatogram provide?
A time based, graphical output of a chromatography run.
How can you tell the difference between D and L amino acids?
Very similar method as for sugars. Most oxidized carbon at the top (-COOH), if the amine group is to the left, it is an L amino acid, if it is to the right, it is a D amino acid
What is the formula to figure out how many possible stereoisomers can be formed from a compound with N stereocenters?
= 2^n
What does enantiomeric excess indicate, and what is its formula?
EE: The extent to which one enantiomer exists over the other in a mixture with both enantiomers. Racemic mixture= EE of 0.
Formula: enantiomeric excess = % of major enantiomer - % of minor
Where does the carbonyl ir peak generally lie?
1600-1900 cm-1
What type of solvent does SN2 prefer and why?
Polar aprotic; polar enough to solvate nucleophile, but not too polar as to lock nucleophile into “solvent cage”
Is saponification (hydrolysis of ester bonds with strong base), do you need 1 equivalent of base per ester bond, or simply a catalytic amount?
1 equivalent of base per ester bond
Which is a common method used to separate between cis and trans isomers? (geometric isomers)
Gas chromatography, which can separate them due to their different boiling points
What is the nmr ppm value for carboxylic acid hydrogen?
10-12
What is the nmr ppm value for an aldehyde hydrogen?
9-10
What is the nmr ppm value for aromatic hydrogens?
7-8
What IR stretch is indicative of C=C bond in an alkene?
~1640-1680
Which common bonds exhibit IR stretch peaks above 3000?
=C-H, O-H (alcohol only ), N-H,
What is the difference in IR stretch values between alcohol -OH and acid -OH?
Alcohol -OH is higher ((3200-3500, vs 2500-3200 for acid) because it is a stronger bond (dissociates less)
Are amides slightly acidic or slightly basic and why?
Slightly acidic, because upon deprotonation there is resonance stabilization with the oxygen
If two objects are launched at complementary angles at the same velocity, will they land the same distance away from where they are launched?
Yes, but only if the landing area is at the same elevation at which they were both launched
What is the formula for the range of a projectile? (2D kinematics)
R= (Vo2sin2(theta))/g
How do you calculate the force reduction associated with a pulley system?
Frequired to lift an object= Weight of Object/(# of “wheels)
What is poiseuilles equation (describes flow rate through a pipe),
What are the equations for: 1.) force applied by a spring and 2.) potential energy stored by a spring?
1.) F=-kx 2.) PE=½ kx^2
What is the relationship between number of coils and spring constant?
The greater the number of coils, the lower the spring constant
What direction does the carnot diagram of an engine flow?
Clockwise
What direction does the carnot diagram of a refridgerator flow?
Counterclockwise
What is mean free path?
In ideal gas: the mean distance a given particle travels before colliding with other particles
What quantity of a gas sample affects mean free path values?
Only density (of particles)
What does “X” stand for (In gasses?)
Relative abundance
How does one increase the velocity of a standing wave in a string?
Increase tension or decrease density of the string
What is the formula for the period of simple harmonic motion for both a spring and a pendulum?
T=2pi * sqrt(m/k) for a spring,
T= 2pi * sqrt(L/g) for a pendulum
What is the formula for the frequency of a standing wave on a string?
Fn= (nv)/2L, n= which harmonic, meaning how many “humps” you see
Does sound propogate faster in harder materials or softer materials?
Harder materials
Order the mediums in terms of propogation speed of sound through it: Liquid, Gas, Solid
Slowest: Gas, Liquid, Solid (fastest)
?What is the formula for calculating a decibel value based on intensities?
D= 10log(I/Is), where I is the intensity of the sound, Is is the lowest audible sound a human can hear, or any other source/standard intensity sound
What is the magnitude multiplier for the prefix”mega”?
10^6
What is the magnitude multiplier for the prefix”Giga”?
10^9
How can the doppler effect be estimated?
What occurs to sound intensity after entering another medium and why?
Decreases; some of the wave is reflected at the interface between the two mediums
What is the equation for pressure felt at different heights in a water column?
P1-P2=p(y2-y1)g, where P1 and P2 are the pressures felt at depths y1 and y2, and p is the density of the fluid
(in simpler terms- P=pgh, as long as h refers to the height below surface of water)
What is the equation for buoyant force?
B= pfluid * Vfluid displaced * g
What is the formula for a fluid’s retarding force as it moves through the center of a pipe?
F= 4pi n(viscocity) L v
What is the continuity equation in fluid dynamics?
Q= A1V1= A2V2
What is the conversion from g/L to kg/m^3?
1:1
What occurs in transamination?
An amino group (-NH2) is transferred from an amino acid to a keto-acid to form the amino-acid version of the keto acid and the keto acid version of the original amino acid.
What is lipolysis, and what enzyme controls lipolysis?
Lipolysis is the hydrolysis of triacyglycerols to a glycerol and three fatty acid chains. It is controlled by hormone sensitive lipase
Where in the body are proteins broken down into amino acids?
The small intestine, by proteases such as trypsin and chymostypsin, as well as in the stomach by the protease pepsin
What is the difference between Ketogenic and Glucogenic amino acids?
Ketogenic: Carbon backbone feeds into fatty acid synthesis (can be converted into acetyl coa)
Glucogenic: Carbon backbone feeds into glucose synthesis (can be conerted into glucosee)
What are the two exclusively ketogenic amino acids?
Lysine and Leucine
Where are amino acids sent after the small intestine? What can occur here?
The liver. Using these amino acids, protein synthesis, glucose synthesis or, fatty acid synthesis can occur
What is the primary amino group acceptor in transamination?
alpha-ketoglutarate
After transamination, what is alpha-ketoglutarate converted to?
Glutamate
After transamination and the conversion of alpha-ketoglutarate to glutamate, to what cycle is the amino group transferred to?
Urea cycle
What is the difference between a reducing sugar and a non-reducing sugar?
Reducing sugar: anomeric carbon has -OH group that can reduce other compounds
Nonreducing sugar: anomeric carbon does not have -OH group
In nucleic acids, sugars are bound to nitrogenous bases using what bond?
Glycosidic bond
What does the x intercept and the y intercept of a lineweaver burke plot represent?
What is the definition of a Zymogen?
An enzyme that must be cleaved before it can be in its active form
What does a hill coefficient that is 1, less than 1, and greater than 1 indicate?
Less than 1: Negative cooperativity, binding of one ligand prevents binding of another
1: independent cooperativity, independent binding
Greater than 1: Positive cooperativity, binding of one ligand promotes binding of the other
What is the average weight of an amino acid in daltons?
110 Da
How does insulin promote glycolysis, and by what mechanism?
Upregulates glycolysis; activates synthesis of F2,6BP (by upregulating PFK-2), which then allosterically activates PFK-1 to synthesize more F1,6BP
Which two amino acids disrupt alpha helix formation?
Glycine and proline
Match the following:
Tertiary structure is mainly mediated through interactions between (side chains/backbones), whereas secondary structure is mainly mediated through interactions between (side chains/backbones)
- Side chains, 2. Backbone
What is a native gel?
One without SDS; used when 3d protein structure needs to be preserved
What is a signal peptide sequence?
Peptide sequence at the N terminus of newly synthesized proteins that tells the protein where to go,
What is transcytosis?
Transport of vesicular transport of macromolecules form one end of the cell to the other
What does the complement system do?
Recognizes antibody antigen (commonly microorganisms) complex, becomes activated, cascade of proteolytic cleavages until it is able to poke holes in microorganism
Where do B -Cells develop and mature?
First develop in the bone marrow, then go onto continue maturation in the spleen + lymph nodes
What is histamine released by, and what are its effects?
Released by Mast cells (basophils), promotes vasodilation, inflammation, and vessel permeability
Where do T-Cells develop and mature?
Thymus, and then spleen + lymph nodes
What are the secondary lymphoid organs and what is their purpose
Lymph nodes, spleen; Where close to mature B cells and T cells can “hang out” and react with foreign antigens
What are the two types of corticosteroids?
Glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids
Between beta cells and alpha cells of the pancreas, which is activated with the sympathetic system and which is activated by the parasympathetic system
Beta cells: parasympathetic
Alpha cells: sympathetic
What is glucagon’s target(s)?
Liver
What is the effect of thyroid hormone?
To increase metabolic rate of all cells affected
Which cells are responsible for the laying down and reabsorption of bone tissue, respectively?
Osteoblasts, osteoclasts
What is the function of parathyroid hormone?
Causes calcium absorption by stimulating osteoclastic activity and inhibiting osteoblast acitivity (opposite to calcitonin)
What is the effect of calcitonin
Reduce born resorption by inhibiting osteoclast activity
What is the cannon bard theory of emotion?
The conscious experience and physiological response of the motion are experienced simultaneously
What is the james lange theory of emotion
Physiological arousal and behavioral response precede the conscious experience of emotion
What is the schachter singer. or two factor theory of emotion?
Exposure to stimulus -> physiological arousal -> cognitive evaluation of physiological arousal in context with situation -> subjective experience of emotion
Similar to James Lange, except physiological arousal must be interpreted with situational conext in mind
What is the effect of sympathetic stimulation on pupils
Dilation
What are ambient stressors?
Global challenges that affect individuals subconsciously, and affect all people in. agiven area, like pollution, city noise. crime
What are the two types of attribution conflict in attribution theory?
- External vs Internal (also known as situational vs dispositional) 2. Stable vs unstable
What is a fixed action pattern?
An action that will invariably occur upon trigger
What is the allostasis theory of drug addiction?
As one takes more and more of an abused drug, the brain will have countermeasures to oppose the effects of the drug (less dopamine receptors, etc). Thus, addiction is primarily motivated not be positive reinforcement (to get high) but by negative reinforcement (don’t want to feel shitty)
What is the reward circuitry pathway in the brain called?
Mesolimbic pathway
What is kluver bucy syndrome?
Bilateral lesion of temporal lobe resulting in hypersexuality, hyper orality (putting things in mouth), and overeating
What is arousal theory in motivation?
People are motivated to do certain behaviors in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal
What is an incremental theory of intelligence?
That one’s intelligence may grow and change
What is the formula to determine iq?
iq= (mental age)/(chronological age) * 100
Where does fatty acid synthesis occur?
Cytosol
Where does fatty acid oxidation occur?
Mitochondria
What are kcat and Km?
kcat is a rate constant, describes the turnover of enzyme (once enzyme substrate complex, how fast does it actually catalyze). Km is an equillibrium constant, describes the affinity of the substrate for enzyme
What is catalytic efficiency and how is it calculated?
catalytic efficiency = kcat/Km. Therefore, higher efficieny= greater turnover and lower affinity
What are the first two steps of glycogenolysis, and what are the enzymes that catalyze these steps?
- ) Glycogen to G1P; catalyzed by glycogen phosphorylase
- ) G1P to G6P; catalyzed by phosphoglucomutase
How are glucose residues removed from linear (not branch point) glycogen chains? (Phosphorolysis or hydrolysis)
Phosphorolysis
What must be true to go from products back to reactants in an irreversible metabolic step?
To go back to reactants, must use a different pathway altogether
What does the cori cycle describe?
The opposing pathways of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. specifically in regards to lactic acid fermentation by muscles. This lactate is then sent to the liver, converted to pyruvate, and is used in gluconeogenesis to then regenerate glucose.
It is a “futile/substrate” cycle, in which there are two opposite metabolic pathways that are controlled by different enzymes
How many molecules of NTP (ATP or GTP) are required to synthesize one glucose molecule in gluconeogenesis?
6
What metabolic process provides the energy for gluconeogenesis and why?
Fatty acid oxidation; gluconeogenesis is required in times of fasting; gluconeogenesis requires 6 NTP; this cannot come from glycolysis due to fasting, therefore it must come from fatty acid oxidation
What is the function of F2,6BP, what is its precursor, and what are the enzymes that convert to and from the precursor to F2,6BP?
Function: Allosterically activate PFK-1 to promote glycolysis; allosterically inhibit F1,6BPase to inhibit gluconeogenesis
Precursor: F6P
Enzymes: To F2,6BP: PFK-2. Back to F6P: F2,6BPase
What overarching function does the hypothalamus regulate?
Homeostasis
Which area of the brain is primarily responsible for the physiological component of emotion?
Hypothalamus
What are mirror neurons?
Neurons that are involved when an individual observes and performs a behavior; they play a central role in obvservational learning and in vicarious emotions (empathy)
What is the interactionist theory of language?
Language acquisition in children is the result of both biological (normal brain development) and social factors, especially the interaction between caregivers and children
What is the fundamental attribution error? How is this distinguished from the actor-observer bias?
Tendency to blame others’ behavior on internal (she got into a car accident because she sucks at driving) rather than external (she got into a car accident because it was raining really hard) factors
Actor observer bias, in addition to attributing others’ bad behavior on internal factors, also attributes one’s own actions to external causes
What cognitive functions are primarily mediated by the right hemisphere?
Spatial processing, emotion, art, music, visualizatoin
What cognitive functions are primarily mediated by the left themisphere?
Language, math/logic/reasoning, science
Where inside a solenoid is the magnetic field strongest?
Trick question, the magnetic field is the same strength inside a solenoid regardless of how close one is to the center
What are the functional characteristics of paramagnetic/diamagnetic species?
Paragmagnetic: will align with and strengthen a magnetic field
Diamagnetic: will partially expel a magnetic field; magnetic field creates a field within the species that is opposite to the field,
What is the formula for the electric field generated by two plates with voltage difference V at distance D from each other?
E=V/D
Which cells degrade bone?
Osteoclast
Which cell helps build up bone?
Osteoblast
Which enzyme stimulates vitamin D conversion to calcitriol?
PTH
What are the two main functions of calcitriol?
Minor stimulation of osteoclast activity, increase phosphorus reabsorption, increase intestinal absorption of calcium (somewhat opposite to calcitonin)
Where is calcitonin produced?
Thyroid
What layers of the skin are sensory receptors located in?
Epidermis, dermis
Where and How are keratinocytes formed?
They are formed in the epidermis. At the most basal layer of the epidermis (stratum basale), there exists a layer of continously replicated stem cells. Daughters of these cells continue to push up, die, and keratinize until they are at the surface.
What are/ what is the function of desmosomes and what gives them this quality?
Cell-cell junction that provides strong adhesion between cells. This adhesion results from filaments extending through the junction
What is the purpose of tight junctions?
To prevent leakage between cells
What is the sequence of events that lead to the activation of a B-Cell?
Binds antigen, endocytose antigen and present on surface with MHC 2, helper T binds and releases cytokines which activate the B-Cell, b-cell proliferates and progeny differentiate into either plasma cells or memory B cells.
What is the side chain pKa of cysteine?
8
What is the side chain pka of lysine
10.5
What is the side chain pka of arginine
12
What is the side chain pka of tyrosine?
10
What is a pneumonic to remember the essential amino acids?
VH MILK, WTF? (Very heavy milk, wtf)
What is the definition of an essential amino acid?
One that the body cannot synthesize itself
Which amino acid is a serotonin precursor?
Tryptophan
What is the formula for calculating the isoelectric point of a zwitterion?
pI= (pk1 + pk2)/2
What is the membrane difference between gram positive and gram negative bacteria? Which is resistant to antibiotics?
Gram positive: Peptidoglycan cell wall directly outside membrane
Gram negative: Peptidoglycan cell wall sandwiched between two membranes
Gram negative is resistant to antibiotics and lysozyme, because both act on the peptidoglycan layer which is blocked by the outer membrane
What is the effect of cholesterol on membrane fluidity?
When temperature is low, increase fluidity. When temperature is medium or high (including at physiological temperture), decrease fluidity/increases rigidity . (tries to maintain membrane fluidity homeostasis)
Is e coli gram positive or gram negative?
Gram negative
Downs syndrome is trisomy __
21
Which cells remain in G0 permanently
Neurons, cardiac cells
`What colors do gram positive and gram negative bacteria turn after gram stain, respectively?
Gram pos: Violet
Gram neg: Red or pink
For capacitors in parallel, how do you calculate the equivalent capacitance?
Ceq= C1 + C2 + Cn
For capacitors in series, how do you calculate the equivalent capacitance?
Ceq= 1/(1/C1 + 1/C2 + … )
What is the range of visible wavelengths?
380 nm (violet) to 750 (red)
What is special about the boiling points of two enantiomers? How does this differ from diastereomers?
Enantiomers have the same boiling point. Diastereomers do not
What is a special quality of ethers?
They are inert
Below what BP difference is fractional distillation required?
If the BP difference between two liquids is less than 30 degrees c
What are the two assumptions of raoults law?
- ) That the intermolecular interactions exhibited by the mixture are the same as the interactions exhibited by each mixture component alone (i.e., no new intermolecular interactions arise when the two components are placed together )
- ) perfect homogeneity
What are the two water soluble vitamins?
Vitamin B and Vitamin C
(pneumonic, jesus walked on water in 0 BC)
What subunits are terpenes formed from?
Isoprene subunits
What is another word for cis-trans isomerism?
Geometric isomerism
What increases max absorbance wavelength in UV Vis spectropy? Why?
More conjugated bonds= energy gap between excited and ground state lower= higher wavelength/ lower energy photon
What is the formula for number of carbons in a completely saturaed hydrocarbon?
Cn H 2n+2
When is 1,4 addition possible?
In a conjugated diene:
What is the difference between a terpene and a terpenoid?
Terpene is hydrocarbon, terpenoid contains heteroatoms
How is biological isoprene synthesized?
Three acetyl coa molecules condense followed by a decarboxylation
Do carbonyls or alkenes have a higher lambda max wavelength value in uv vis?
Carbonyls
What is the chemical purpose of antioxidants in the body?
To “absorb” free radical species. i.e. can react with free radicals and contain the radical, rather than propogating the radical chain reaction
How do lipid soluble proteins travel through the blood stream?
Via chylomicrons (low density lipoprotein)
If a solution absorbs red light what color will it appear? How do you figure out complementary colors?
Green
Arrange the colors ROYGBV in a circle, with R next to V. The color directly across from that color is its complement.
What is a resolving agent used for and how does it work?
To separate enantiomers; it is a chiral auxillary that converts the enantiomers into chemically distinct diastereomers that can then be separated using traditional methods
What characteristic does gas liquid chromatography primarily separate compounds by ?
Boiling point; those with a higher boiling point have more IMF’s and therefore will exhibit longer retention times
What is reversed phase chromotography in contrast to normal chromotography?
In normal chromotography, the the stationary phase is polar and the solvent is nonpolar. In reverse phase chromotography, this is reversed: the stationary phase is nonpolar, the solvent is polar
What is the difference between a kinase and a phosphorylase?
Kinase: transfers phosphate group from one species to another
Phosphorylase: uses a Pi to break a bond
What are the 7 amino acids with ionizable side chains and what are their corresponding side chain pKa’s?
D 3.7
E 4.3
H: 6
K: 10.5
R: 12
Y: 10
C: 8.2
What does a low Km entail for substrate affinity?
Lower Km= higher substrate affinity (On michaelis menten graph, Km is the substrate concentration at which Vo reaches ½ Vo max)
Under what condition does pH+ pOH = 14? (i.e., does kw= 10e-14?)
Only at 25 degrees c
What are the definition of a strong acid, a weak acid, and a very weak acid?
Strong acid: Fully dissociates in water, pKa< 0
Weak acid: partially dissociates in water, 0 < pKa< 14
Very weak acid: dissociates less than H2O, pKa > 14
What is the michaelis menten equation?
V= Vmax[s]/([s] + Km)
What is the LIneweaver Burke equation?
What is a characteristic of a competitive inhibitor on a lineweaver burke plot? What happens to Km and Vmax?
Y intercept stays the same with increasing inhibitor (Vmax remains constant), while x intercept becomes less negative (Km increases)
Km increases, Vmax remains constant
What is a characteristic of a noncompetitive inhibitor on lineweaver burke plot? What is the effect on Km and Vmax?
X intercept constant (Km remains unaffected), Y intercept increases (Vmax decreases)
Km remains constant, Vmax decreases
What is the difference between a noncompetitive inhibitor and an uncompetitive inhibitor?
Noncompetitive: binds allosteric site of free enzyme or enzyme substrate complex
Uncompetitive: only binds allosteric site of enzyme substrate complex
What is the effect of an uncompetitive inhibitor on the lineweaver burke plot? What is its effect on km and vmax?
Both y intercept and x intercept change, slope (Km/vmax) remains constant
Km decreases, vmax decreases
Which vitamin is bound to co enzyme A?
Vitamin B5
Between alpha helixes and beta sheets, which is more strong and which is more flexible?
Beta sheets- more flexible
Alpha helix- more strong
What does a ca2+ na+ exchanger do?
In heart cells, maintains Ca2+ levels. Calcium out of cell, sodium into cell, using Na+ gradient
Which lobe of the brain is responsible for processing spatial information and cognitive mapping? (i.e., the relation of objects to each other in space)
Parietal lobe
What is the phi phenomenon?
An illusion of movement when two adjacent lights blink on and off
What is motion parallax?
When things that are closer tend to move faster than things that are further away
What is retinal disparity?
Two eyes see different images, allowing us depth perception
What does the psychoanalytic concept of regression entail?
A defense mechanism; Behaving as if were much younger in order to avoid consequences
What is the formula for the resistance of a wire?
R= p(resistivity) (L/A)
What are the formula for electrical power?
P= IV, P= V^2/R, P= I^2R
What is the formula for Capacitance as it relates to charge on the capacitor and voltage?
C= q/v
What is the equation related capacitance to dielectric constant?
C= keA/d
e is the permitivity of free space, which is altered by k, the dielectric constant
What is the formula for the electric potential energy needed to charge a capacitor?
PE= qVavg
Functional derivations: PE= ½ CV^2 or PE= 1/2 q^2 /C
What is kirchoff’s loop rule?
Sum of the voltage changes in any closed circuit is equal to zero
What is kirchoff’s junciton rule?
At any junction in a circuit, I(before junction) = I1 + I2
What are the formulas for resisters in series vs parellel? How do they compare to capacitors in series vs parallel?
Resistors:
Series: Req= r1 + r2 + …
Parellel: Req= 1/(1/r1 + 1/r2 + 1/r3.. )
This relationship is flipped for capacitors
What the the equation for the time dependence of charge on a capacitor in an RC circuit?
q=qo (1-e^(-t/(rc)))
What the the equation for the time dependence of current on a capacitor in an RC circuit?
I=Io (e^(-t/(rc)))
Does host genome degradation occur for both lytic and lysogenic cycles?
Yes
Which cycle (lytic/lysogenic) involves integration into host genome?
Lysogenic
Which motor proteins, respectively, control anterograde and retrograde transport? Along which cytoskeleton fiber type do they travel along?
Anterograde: Kinesin
Retrograde: Dynein
Along microtubules
Viruses with which type of genome (DNA or RNA) utilize the host machinery more?
DNA- need RNA pol to transcribe to RNA, then ribosomes to make viral proteins. In RNA genomes, can directly use their own RNA to make viral proteins.
What distinguishes a retrovirus from normal RNA viruses?
Retroviruses have reverse transcriptase and integrase activity to allow their RNA genomes to be transcribed into DNA and integrated into the host genome. Normal RNA viruses simply allow their RNA genomes to be replicated by host machinery.
What effect does withdrawal of female sex hormones have on bone density?
Would decrease bone density
What is the formula for the pH of a solution of weak acid?
Find [H+] from pKa (using the correct approximations, as Ka will be <<1), then from [H+] find pH
pH= (pKa- log[HA]) /2
How do you calculate equivalence point pH in a weak acid / strong base titration?
Find final concentration of conjugate base, use pKb (remember, pka+ pkb=14) to find [OH-], then convert to pH
Alternatively,
pH= (pKa + pH(titrant solution)) /2
How do you calculate the pH of the first equivalence point of a polyprotic acid titration?
pH= (pk1 + pk2)/2
In the titration of a strong acid by a strong base or vice versa, what is always the pH at equivalence point?
pH= 7
What is the numerical relationship between pka and pkb for the same proton?
pka + pkb = 14 (only at 25 degrees c)
What is true of the pH of a titration at the half equivalence point?
pH= pKa
What is the pH range of a single pH indicator?
Around 2
What can be said of the charge of an amino acid when the pH exceeds its pI?
It is negatively charged
What do granulosa cells secrete?
Estrogen
What is the difference between a feature search and a conjunction search?
Feature search: searching for target stimulus with one distinct feature
Conjunction search: searching for target stimulus with by scanning for a combination of features
What is the Stroop effect?
When a task becomes automized, there may be errors associated with it. (i.e., ask to as quickly as possible name the ink color of a set of words. If these words are colors, like “red” but ink color blue, it is harder”
What are the similarities and differences between feature based theory, prototype theory, and exemplar based reasoning ?
They are all means by which we define whether something fits within a category.
Feature based theory: things with certain features fit within a category
Prototype theory: its similarity to an abstract, simplest form prototype decides whether something fits in a category
Exemplar based reasoning: its similarity to an exemplar (i.e., apple for category fruit) decides whether something fits in a category
What is a problem space? What needs to occur to the problem space as one attempts to solve a problem?
A problem space is the mental representation of a problem and all the possible paths to solving it.
In order to solve a problem, need to minimize problem space
What is the availability heuristic?
When making decisions or judgements, one is biased towards choosing the choice in which accessing its pertinent data is most accessible; i.e. “are there more words that start with r or have r as third letter?” people more likely to say the former because those words are more easily accesible
What is the representativeness heuristic?
.The more likely an event appears to resemble a standard mental “prototype” of an event, the more likely it is deemed. In doing so, people often ignore the “base rate”, i.e. in the absence of knowledge of the event, whether that event has a low/ high probability
How is the theory of multiple intelligences related to “g”, general intelligence?
it states that there is no general intelligence; rather, there are separate domains of intelligence that are independent from one another
What is the age range of the Piaget’s sensorimotor stage of development? What are its characteristics and what is attained?
Spans from birth to aquisition of language (2 years old). Attempts to understand world with exploration. Develops object permanence.
What is the age range of the Piaget’s preoperational stage of development? What are its characteristics and what is attained?
- From 2 years to 7 years.
- Cannot perform mental operations like reasoning, but begin to think in terms of images/ are able to use symbols in play/language
- Children in this stage are egocentric; i.e., if hiding behind couch and can’t see parent, thinks parent definitely can’t see them.
What is Theory of mind?
Ability to infer another person’s mental state and thus explain/predict their behavior
What is the age range of the Piaget’s concrete operational stage of development? What are its characteristics and what is attained?
7 to 11 years old. Characterized by ability to think logically about concrete events, but inability to comprehend hypothetical or abstract concepts. Also gain the ability of theory of mind (no longer egocentric)
What is the age range of the Piaget’s formal operational stage of development? What are its characteristics and what is attained?
From 12 onwards. Children can now think logically about abstract and hypothetical instances.
What is the learning perspective of language?
Children develop use of language through both classical and operant conditioning, as well as observational learning
What is the nativist perspective of language development?
Language is something individuals are are naturally predisposed to; it cannot be learned from experience alone
What does a lesion in broca’s area lead to?
Broca’s aphasia; loss of ability to speak words but retain ability to comprehend langauge
What does a lesion in wernicke’s area do?
Lose ability to comprehend language, but can still string together fluid (but nonsensical) sentences)
What EEG waves are associated with alertness?
Beta waves
What eeg waves are associated with each sleep stage?
Stage 1: Theta waves
Stage 2: Theta + k complex
Stage 3 and 4: delta waves
REM: beta waves (similar to wake)
What is the theory of linguistic relativity?
The structure of a language affects the speaker’s worldview/cognition
What sort of statistical test is an F statistic associated with?
ANOVA
What theory of language did noam chomsky support?
Nativist Theory of language
What is noam chomsky’s language acquisition device?
A instinctive quality of infants that allow them instinctive ability to acquire and produce language
What is the IR wavenumber for an aromatic C-H stretch?
~3030 cm-1
What does SOCl2 alone do to an alcohol?
Through SN2, substitutes an alchohol into an alkyl chloride
What generally happens to a solution in which a transition metal changes oxidation states?
A color change occurs
What is the difference between vicinal and geminal?
Vicinal- both groups are on neighboring carbons
Geminal- both groups are on the same carbon
What do LAH and NaBH4 do in a reaction, and what is the difference in their reactivities?
LAH and NaBH4 reduce carbonyls to alcohols. In contrast to NaBH4, which can reduce aldehydes, ketones, and acid chlorides/anhydrides, LAH can also reduce esters and carboxylic acids
What is the difference between an aldol and a claisen condensation?
Aldol: addition of enolates to to aldehydes or ketones
Claisen: addition of enolates to esters
How does PCC react with a primary alcohol?
Oxidizes primary alcohol to an aldehyde (rather than all the way to a carboxylic acid)
What can be said about CrO3, H2CrO4, and Na2Cr2O7?
They are all equivalent, and oxidize alcohols to carbonyls
What does SOCl2 do to a carboxylic acid?
Turns it into an acid chloride
What enzyme interconverts DHAP and GAP?
Triose Phosphate Isomerase
What enzyme converts GAP to its produce? What are the products of this reaciton?
GAPDH
Products: 1,3 BPG, NADH
What enzyme converts 1.3 BPG to its product? What products are yielded in this reaciton?
Phosphoglycerate kinase; 3PG and ATP
What metabolite helps hemoglobin bind oxygen? What reaction is the metabolite derived from? What is special about the enzyme that catalyzes this reaction that allows for this?
2,3 BPG; derived from 3PG to 2PG reaction catalyzed by PGM; the intermediate di-phosphorylated compound of this reaction is 2,3 BPG
PGM is a phosphorylated enzyme, meaning that it comes phosphorylated and therefore phosphorylates the two position in 3PG before dephosphorylating its 3 position
Note: 2,3 BPG can also be catalyzed directly from 1,3 BPG by 2,3 bisphosphoglycerate
What enzyme converts 2PG to its product? What is the product?
Enolse; PEP
What is special about TPI (triose phosphate isomerase) in glycolysis?
It is catalytically perfect
What is the main purpose of converting pyruvate to lactate under anaerobic conditions?
To regenerate NAD+
What are the regulators of PFK?
Inhibitors: Citrate, ATP
Activators: AMP, F 2,6 BP (made from F6P detour by PFK-2, stimulated by insulin)
Where in the cell does glycolysis occur?
Cytoplasm
What enzyme (complex) is used to convert pyruvate to the first reactant in the citric cycle? What are its products?
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase complex; Acetyl coa, NADH, CO2
What enzyme in the Citric Acid Cycle catalyzes GTP production?
Succinyl Coa Synthetase
Which complexes do NADH and FADH2 enter in the ETC, respectively?
Complex 1, compelx 2
What is the formula for the temperature dependence of the equillibrium constant?
How many cycles of beta oxidation will occur for an 18 carbon fatty acid?
8 cycles; you cannot oxidize the last two carbons, because you require a beta carbon to continue.
However, the last two carbons will end up being acetyl coa anyways, so 9 total acetyl coa’s are produced even though there are only 8 cycles of beta oxidation
What is bernoullis equation, which relates the pressure, height, and velocity of water at two separate points?
What does genetic leakage refer to?
Gene flow from one species to another via the creation of 1.) a viable hybrid of two species then 2.) mating this viable hybrid back to one of the parentals
What are the easy ways to remember D Glucose. D Mannose, D Ribose,?
What are easy ways to remember D Fructose and D Galactose, as they relate to D Glucose?
What is the way in which you can extend an aldose by one carbon?
Killiani fischer synthesis
What is the synthetic method to remove a carbon from an aldose?
Ruff Degradation
What is the difference between an acetal and a hemiacetal?
What are the differences between a Dominant culture, subculture, and counterculture?
In size exclusion chromotography (also known as gel filtration chromotography) , how is size related to elution time?
Size is inversely proportional to elution time; this is because the beads are porous, and therefore the smaller the molecule, the more likely it is to get “stuck”
For hormones that affect gene transcription, how do steroid hormones and peptide hormones differ in their action?
Peptide hormones: receptors extracellular, cause signal transduction cascade to affect gene transcription
Steroid hormone: receptors intracellular, steroid-receptor complex binds directely to DNA
What is the formula for (first order, aka half life is constant)) exponential decay when you know half life? How about when you know rate constant?
When you know rate constant: N= No e^-kt
When you know the half life: (picture below)
What is characteristic of the half life of second order decay?
Half life (i.e. amount of time it takes to reduce amount of substance by 50 percent) is doubled per halving of reactant
What is Newton’s third law?
Any force must have an equal and opposite reaction force. (you push on a table, the table pushes back on you in an equal and opposite fashion_
How can the change in enthalpy of a reaction be calculated from the heats of formations of products/reactants?
Note: when calculating sum(deltaHformation) of reactants and products, must multiply each individual reactant/product with their respective coefficient
What is a double crossover event?
Chromosomal arms of homologous chromosomes cross over twice along their length
What is the function of the alveoli?
Sacs in the lungs that are designed for high surface area, where gas exchange via capillaries occurs
What cytoskeleton component is the mitotic spindle comprised of?
Microtubules
In a normal distribution, what proportion of data is represented by +/- 1 SD, 2SD, and 3SD from the mean?
68, 95, 99.7
What are the four main tissue types?
Epithelial, Muscle, Connective, Nervous
What is the gabriel synthesis and what is it used for?
A method that uses potassium phthalimide and diethyl bromomalate to synthesize amino acids (in reality, can synthesis any primary alkyl amine). Will create a mix of l and d amino acids
What can be said about the thermal expansion of a liquid? What is the corresponding equation?
Expansion in terms of volume is linearly proportional to change in temperature
What are the sequences a vesicle goes through in the endosomal pathway?
Endocytosis → vesicle → early endosome → late endosome → lysosome
The lysosome environment is highly acidic and acts as the digestive destination of the cell
Where do all leukocytes (white blood cells) originate from?
Bone marrow
What are the epiphysis, diaphysis, and metaphysis of a bone?
All refer to “long bones”, like ones in limbs
Epiphysis: rounded ends of the bone covered in cartilage
Diaphysis: middle shaft containing yellow bone marrow
Metaphysis: where epiphysis and diaphysis meet
Give an overview of the most important components of a mature sperm. What is special about the internal structure of a sperm?
Acrosome: at tip, enzymes to aid fertilization
Nucleus: Takes up majority of space in head
Mitochonrial spiral: Takes up all of midpiece, used to power flagellum
Flagellum: Tail that allows for motility
Mature sperm (spermatocyte) has little to no cytosol
How are conformity, peer pressure, persuasion, and obedience related?
They are all concerned with how the presence of others affects individual behavior, on a gradient of implicit to explicit influence by individuals of a group.
Do interval or ratio reinforcement schedule provide the most rapid behavioral response? Between fixed and variable schedules, which is more resistant to extinction?
- Ratio reinforcement
- Variable schedule
What are maslow’s 5 hierarchies of needs?
From base to top:
Physiological, Safety, belongingness/love, Esteem, Self actualization
What are the lacteals?
Structures in the intestines that are associated with fat absorption into the lymphatic system
How are ketone bodies generated, and what is their main use?
Generated from the beta oxidation of fatty acids (through acetyl-coa intermediate)
Main use: for the brain to use in periods of starvation (i.e. no glucose)
Which type of molecule can undergo decarboxylation?
Beta keto acids
What is the general sequence of events after a ligand binds a G protein coupled receptor?
Ligand binds, alpha subunit of g protein exchanges GDP for GTP, alpha unit dissociates and activates adenylate cyclase, which converts ATP to cAMP. cAMP activates protein kinase A, which then goes on to cascade
What is the function of clotting factors, and where are they synthesized?
After formation of the platelet plug, clotting factors induce the conversion of prothrombin to thombrin via cleavage, which will then convert fibrogen to fibrin also via cleavage, forming a mesh over the platelet plug
Synthesized in the liver
What are the three components of a flagella and what are their functions?
- ) Basal body, the motor of the flagellum
- ) Hook, transmits force to the filament
- ) Filament, what actually propels the bacteria forward
How do you calculate atmospheric pressure from a simple fluid tube barometer? What central concept does this equation rest on?
Patm= pgh
Rests on assumption that hydrostatic pressure at bottom of column is equal to pressure felt at surface exposed to atmosphere
If a certain system has a mechanical advantage greater than one, does that mean it is mechanically advantageous (meaning, requiring less force) or mechanically disadvantageous?
Mechanically advantageous
What is a nucleosome and what interactions hold its components together?
A nucleosome consists of DNA wrapped around a histone in a single ball. Positively charged AA’s on the histone interact with the negatively charged backbone of dna to keep them together.
What is the general formula for the work done by an engine?
Work output (W) / Work input (Q H)
What differentiates the endometrium and myometrium in the uterus?
Endometrium: The very inner layer of the uterus, where the egg implants
Myometrium: the layer of smooth muscle underneath the endometrium
What are the characteristics/function of osteocytes, and how are the created?
Osteocytes are mature and mitotically inactive cells that control bone remodeling by releasing signals; they are created from osteoblasts, who build the bone matrix around themselves eventually encasing themselves;
Osteocytes are located within lacunae in the Haversian system; they are immobile but can release signals through the caniculae.
What does the semantic network refer to?
How semantic memory has “nodes” that are interconnected with other nodes; thinking of one of these nodes will activate other adjacent nodes via spreading activation (i.e. you have an uncle who is a firefighter; you see a firetruck, and you think of your uncle)
What is the relationship between habituation, dehabituation, sensitization, and desensitization?
What is a disproportionation reaction?
One in which an atom of the same element simultaneously gets oxidized and reduced
Which bands/zones shorten in a sarcomere of a striated muscle?
The I band and the H zone
What is the gestalt principle of symmetry?
Objets that are symmetrical tend to be viewed as whole or complete
What is the gestalt law of continuity?
Individuals have a tendency to continue the perception of lines along the smoothest path
After centrifugation, what are the three layers of blood composed of?
On top: Plasma , which includes blood proteins (like albumin) hormones, nutrients, metabolic waste
Middle: White blood cells and platelets
Bottom Red blood cells (which also includes the hemoglobin contained within them)
What is the formula that describes ideal gas temperature from average molecular kinetic energy?
, Where kb is boltzmann constant, and Tk is temperature in kelvin
How is cytosolic NADH produced by glycolysis transferred to ETC?
Through. the malate aspartate shuttle
In the demographic transition model, does birth rate or death rate begin to decline first as a society transitions towards becoming more developed?
Death rate
In the demographic transition model, does birth rate or death rate begin to decline first as a society transitions towards becoming more developed?
Death rate
Visually, how does one discern between the half equivalence point and the equivalence point?
Half equivalence point is the middle of the “flat” portion prior to the steep incline, and the equivalence point is the middle portion of the steep incline
Why can humans digest starch but not cellulose?
Due to different glycosidic linkage; humans can only cleave alpha 1,4 linkages, not beta 1,4
What process does bond dissociation enthalpy measure the enthalpy for?
The splitting of a covalent bond into two radicals
What process does bond dissociation enthalpy measure the enthalpy for?
The splitting of a covalent bond into two radicals
What signaling pathway/cascade do TCR’s use?
tyrosine kinase (as opposed to GPCR)
What formula can one use to determine the spacing of bands in single slit diffraction?
, Where theta represents angle between each band, lambda is the wavelength of incident light, and alpha is width of the slit
What can be said about sleep cycles as each consecutive sleep cycle progresses?
Proportion of time spent in REM per sleep cycle increases
From earlier in the tract to later in the tract, what are the four portions of the colon?
Ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon
Along with the thyroid, what other organs are involved in its associated endocrine axis?
Hypothalamus, pituitary (HPT Axis)
Along with the thyroid, what other organs are involved in its associated endocrine axis?
Hypothalamus, pituitary (HPT Axis)
Along with the thyroid, what other organs are involved in its associated endocrine axis?
Hypothalamus, pituitary (HPT Axis)
What is the arrhenius equation, and what does it describe?
Describes how the rate constant k of a reaction changes with activation energy and temperature
What is the universalism perspective on language and cognition? What is the polar opposite of this stance?
States that language is determined solely by cognition
Polar opposite: Linguistic determinism, cognition is determined solely by language
What is the general structure of a phosphatide?
A glycerol with two of the “arms” being fatty acid esters and the third being a phsphate with any nitrogen base linked on it
In malthusian theory, what are prevenatitive checks, positive checks, and malthusian catastrophes?
Each is a response, to differing levels, of when the exponential growhth of a population exceeds its carrying capacity
