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1
Q

The most abundant mineral in lithogenous sediments is __________.

A

quartz. Quartz is silicon dioxide, a very hard and chemically stable mineral under conditions at the surface of Earth.

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2
Q

From smallest to largest, what is the list of particle sizes?

A

clay, silt, sand, pebbles

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3
Q

In which environments would you expect lithogenous sediment to be the dominant sediment type?

A

sandy beaches, abyssal plains, at the base of a continental slope

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4
Q

What is calcareous ooze?

A

a fine-grained, deep ocean sediment containing the skeletal remains of calcite-secreting microbes

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5
Q

What is the calcite compensation depth, or CCD?

A

the ocean depth below which calcite is unstable and will dissolve quickly

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6
Q

What three steps are required for calcareous ooze to exist below the CCD?

A

deposition of calcite shells above the CCD, cover of these shells by a non-calcareous material, and movement of the sea floor over millions of years

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7
Q

What would happen if the depth of the CCD were above the top of the mid-ocean ridge?

A

Calcareous ooze would not be found below the CCD.

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8
Q

What can you infer about the ocean environment from a core sample composed of the following layers:
Siliceous ooze (youngest layer)
Calcareous ooze
Basalt rock (oldest layer)

A

The core was collected in a region of high surface productivity in water deeper than 4500 meters.

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9
Q

The White Cliffs of Dover are an example of what sediment type?

A

biogenous

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10
Q

Calcite dissolves more readily in seawater that is ________ in temperature and ________ in pressure.

A

colder; higher

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11
Q

Sediments derived from the remains of the hard parts of once-living organisms are called __________ sediments.

A

biogenous

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12
Q

Two common types of chemical compounds found in biogenous sediments are __________ and __________.

A

calcium carbonate; silica

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13
Q

The two major types of microscopic, planktonic organisms that produce siliceous oozes are __________ and __________.

A

diatoms, radiolarians

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14
Q

How does siliceous ooze accumulate on the seafloor if silica-based residues are dissolved slowly at all depths?

A

Silica tests accumulate faster than seawater can dissolve them.

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15
Q

Siliceous ooze is particularly abundant on the seafloor at __________ and at __________.

A

High-latitude environments and upwelling zones have cool and nutrient-rich waters at the surface to support silica-secreting organisms.

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16
Q

Which planktonic organisms thrive in cold surface waters?

A

siliceous organisms, radiolarians, diatoms

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17
Q

warm waters are to _____-based organisms as cold waters are to ______-based organisms

A

calcium carbonate, silica

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18
Q

Why do some organisms thrive in warm surface waters?

A

warm water is generally saturated in carbonate.

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19
Q

Where might one find calcareous oozes on the seafloor?

A

along the mid-ocean ridge, buried in siliceous ooze, buried in abyssal clay

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20
Q

Which of the following factors affect the distribution of biogenic oozes on the seafloor?

A

seafloor spreading, dissolution, water depth, biological productivity

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21
Q

On average, at what ocean depth does calcite readily dissolve into seawater?

A

4500 meters (14,764 ft)

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22
Q

in order of most prevalent in the ocean to least, list the three types of sediment.

A

calcareous ooze, abyssal clay, siliceous ooze

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23
Q

What do manganese nodules, metal sulfides, and evaporites all have in common?

A

They are all hydrogenous sediments, all precipitate from water oversaturated in their respective minerals.

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24
Q

The most likely place to find abundant manganese nodules is on the:

A

abyssal plain far from a continent

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25
Q

Tektites are an example of what sediment type?

A

cosmogenous sediment

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26
Q

What is the explanation for the differences in sediment abundance between the North Atlantic and North Pacific basins?

A

Abyssal clays are more abundant in the North Pacific than the North Atlantic because calcareous oozes dissolve before reaching the sea floor in the latter ocean basin.

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27
Q

Sediments found on continental margins are called:

A

neritic

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28
Q

A very important way to increase the settling rate of fine particles in the open ocean is via:

A

fecal pelletss

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29
Q

Neritic sediments are most likely to be composed of __________.

A

sand, silt, gravel

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30
Q

You take a sediment sample from the ocean floor at a depth of 5500 m. The area has low biological productivity and the CCD is at 4500 m depth. Your sample will probably consist of __________.

A

clay

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31
Q

Which resource found in ocean sediments has great economic value?

A

petroleum

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32
Q

Which of the following contains the most organic carbon on Earth?

A

gas hydrates

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33
Q

Which of the following is the major environmental concern regarding the release of methane from the sea floor to the atmosphere?

A

Release of large quantities of methane from the ocean causes dramatic effects on global climate.

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34
Q

Why do ionic compounds dissolve readily in water?

A

The electrostatic attraction between ions is weakened by the polarity of water.

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35
Q

hydrogen bonds

A

bonds that hold adjacent water molecules together

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36
Q

ions

A

charged atoms due to the gain or loss of one or more electrons

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37
Q

covalent bonds

A

bonds that involve the sharing of electrons between atoms

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38
Q

electrons

A

relatively charged subatomic particles that orbit an atomic nucleus

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39
Q

atoms

A

basic building blocks of all matter

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40
Q

The covalent bonds between hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a water molecule form as a result of the ________.

A

sharing of electrons between the atoms

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41
Q

Hydrogen bonds form between neighboring water molecules because of:

A

the polarity of water molecules.

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42
Q

Many of the unusual properties of water are attributed to the fact that water:

A

is a polar molecule

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43
Q

Water can pile up a short distance above a container’s rim due to:

A

high surface tension.

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44
Q

Atoms that have lost or gained one or more electrons are called ________.

A

ions

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45
Q

Which of the following statements comparing covalent and hydrogen bonding is correct?

A

Stronger covalent bonds occur within water molecules and weaker hydrogen bonds form between adjacent water molecules.

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46
Q

reasons why water is considered a universal solvent

A

Water molecules makes it much easier for ions to separate, reduce the attraction between ions of opposite charges, stick to other polar chemical compounds, and interact with other water molecules and other polar molecules.

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47
Q

Which of the following best defines melting point?

A

The temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid

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48
Q

describe an ion

A

An ion may be in the form of either a single atom or a polyatomic ion (multiple atoms), but the number of electrons and protons is unequal, and it carries a net electrical charge.

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49
Q

The principal reason that oil and water do not mix, even when shaken, is that oil molecules __________.

A

are nonpolar whereas water molecules are polar

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50
Q

the unusual geometry of water leads to what properties?

A

water has cohesion, surface tension, hydrogen bonds, polarity, the ability to dissolve almost anything

51
Q

which is more dense: ice or water?

A

water

52
Q

How does water exert a thermostatic effect on climate moderation?

A

Evaporation in the tropics has a cooling effect on ocean temperature.

53
Q

describe how evaporation exerts a thermostatic effect on climate.

A

As water evaporates and it transforms from a liquid to a gaseous state, 540 cal/g of heat is absorbed by the atmosphere, thus helping to moderate air temperature.

54
Q

latent heat

A

Latent heat is the quantity of heat gained or lost as a substance undergoes a change in state.

55
Q

Which property of water causes coastal communities to have only moderate differences in daily highs and lows when compared to inland communities?

A

high heat capacity

56
Q

heat capacity

A

The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1 degree Celsius.

57
Q

latent heat

A

The energy needed to break the intermolecular bonds that hold molecules in place.

58
Q

Which of the following best defines heat?

A

The energy transfer from one body to another due to a difference in temperature.

59
Q

temperature

A

The direct measure of the average kinetic energy of a substance’s molecules.

60
Q

true statements about water latent heat and changes in energy

A

Latent heat allows water to transfer energy from one place to another, in the solid state, all water molecules are connected by weak (hydrogen) bonds, When water vapor condenses and forms a liquid, it releases heat to the environment, in the vapor state, there are no weak (hydrogen) bonds between water molecule, when water evaporates, its latent heat of evaporation absorbs heat.

61
Q

Vaporizing water requires how much heat energy?

A

input 540 calories

62
Q

facts about water and ice density

A

As the temperature of water decreases from 4°C to 0°C, its density decreases, ice is less dense than liquid water, which is why ice floats, water at 2°C is less dense than it is at 4°C, water’s maximum density is at 4°C.

63
Q

Which of the following surface seawater salinity conditions would you predict for the following location: Latitude: 60°N Longitude: 20°W

A

low seawater surface salinity due to precipitation

64
Q

Which of the following surface seawater salinity conditions would you predict for the following location: Latitude: 30°S Longitude: 80°E

A

high seawater surface salinity due to precipitation

65
Q

physicality of ice molecules

A

Water molecules in ice remain in a relatively fixed position and are not as mobile as they are in the liquid state, where there are fewer hydrogen bonds. They are bonded together.

66
Q

shape of ice

A

rigid, forms a 3d crystalline shape, does not conform to the shape of container

67
Q

Why are water molecules in a gas phase able to move rapidly and independently of each other?

A

There are no hydrogen bonds between water molecules in a gas phase, so each water molecule acts as an individual.

68
Q

What makes water a polar molecule?

A

it has a positive hydrogen side and a negative oxygen side

69
Q

How do hydrogen bonds define the three states of matter in water?

A

ice has more hydrogen bonds than any other state of water, in fact, water will be solid if there are hydrogen bonds between all molecules. In liquid water, there are some hydrogen bonds between water molecules that form and break repeatedly. There are no hydrogen bonds when water is in a gas phase.

70
Q

hydrogen bonds and heat

A

Hydrogen bonds are responsible for the high latent heat of vaporization of liquid water to water vapor, and of the melting of ice to liquid water. Hydrogen bonds are also responsible for the high heat capacity of water.

71
Q

What property of water prevents a flame from bursting the water balloon?

A

high heat capacity

72
Q

A block of ice is in a deep freezer at –40°C. The ice is removed from the freezer and is placed in the sink. When will the ice begin to melt?

A

Ice begins to melt after 20 calories of heat per gram of water is applied, and when the temperature of ice reaches 0 degrees Celsius.

73
Q

If you want to drink a cold glass of water, why might you want to add ice?

A

Any heat that is absorbed by the water will go into melting the ice, not raising the temperature of the water, so the water will stay cooler longer.

74
Q

Why is the latent heat of vaporization for water so much higher than the latent heat of melting?

A

For melting, only some hydrogen bonds need to be broken, whereas for vaporization, all hydrogen bonds must be broken.

75
Q

which is higher: the latent heat for the vaporization of water or the latent heat of melting?

A

latent heat of vaporization for water

76
Q

The Principle of Constant Proportions states that:

A

the relative concentrations of the major ions in seawater does not change.

77
Q

an application of the principle of constant proportions?

A

The concentration of a single major constituent can be measured to determine the total salinity of a water sample.

78
Q

Human consumption of what component of seawater helps prevent goiter?

A

iodine

79
Q

goiter

A

a swelling of the neck resulting from enlargement of the thyroid gland.

80
Q

Which is the most abundant ion in seawater?

A

chloride

81
Q

Why is chloride more abundant than sodium in seawater?

A

Chloride is more abundant than sodium because sources include both dissolved salts and submarine volcanic vents.

82
Q

average salinity of seawater

A

35 ppt, or 3.5%

83
Q

what are the two most common dissolved components in sewater?

A

sodium and chloride

84
Q

If all the water in the ocean was evaporated and only the solid salt was left behind, how much salt would there be?

A

enough to form a layer about 500 feet thick that covers all of Earth

85
Q

Which statement accurately describes the interaction between a water molecule and sodium chloride as it dissolves?

A

The negative oxygen end of the water molecule is attracted to the positive sodium ion.

86
Q

Why is water able to dissolve salt?

A

Water molecules are polar and are attracted to the electrically charged ions that form salts.

87
Q

Why does the water molecule have polarity?

A

Water is geometrically bent to give one side, or pole, a positive charge and the opposite side a negative charge.

88
Q

Which attributes of the water molecule arise from the unique bend in its geometry?

A

The hydrogen end has a positive charge, and the oxygen end has a negative charge.

89
Q

Which process in the hydrologic cycle is most effective at increasing ocean salinity on a global scale?

A

Evaporation

90
Q

Which of the hydrologic cycle reservoirs is the smallest?

A

atmospheric water vapor

91
Q

On an annual basis which flux between reservoirs of the hydrologic cycle is the largest?

A

ocean and atmosphere

92
Q

On an annual basis which flux between reservoirs of the hydrologic cycle is the smallest?

A

Continent to ocean

93
Q

processes that decrease seawater salinity

A

iceberg melting, sea ice melting, river runoff, precipitation

94
Q

We would expect the salinity of surface waters to be higher in regions where __________.

A

evaporation is much greater than precipitation

95
Q

The correct order of substances from most acidic to most alkaline is _______, ________, __________.

A

rainwater, pure water, seawater

96
Q

T or F: seawater is more acidic than pure water

A

False

97
Q

The ion in seawater that serves as a buffer is:

A

HCO3-.

98
Q

There is a general trend of decreasing pH with increasing water depth in the ocean. What is the cause of this pattern?

A

Deeper, colder ocean water contains more dissolved carbon dioxide, which causes the pH to be lower.
As CO2 dissolves, it increases the amount of carbonic acid in the water, thus making it more acidic.

99
Q

pH (increases/decreases) generally with ocean depth

A

decreases

100
Q

pH of seawater

A

the pH of seawater is slightly basic, and higher than that of pure water. Dissolving carbon dioxide lowers the pH of sewater. The carbonate buffering system stabilizes the pH of seawater.

101
Q

Calcite-secreting organisms such as __________ and __________ live in the ocean’s sunlit surface waters and form the basis of most marine food webs.

A

coccolithophores, foraminifers

102
Q

The depth at which calcite dissolves rapidly in the ocean is called the __________.

A

CCD or calcite compensation depth

103
Q

What happens at the CCD?

A

The combination of temperature and pressure result in more acidic water that dissolves calcite more rapidly.

104
Q

The pH scale is a measure of the __________ ion concentration of a solution.

A

hydrogen

105
Q

As a whole, the pH of surface waters of the ocean is slightly __________.

A

alkaline

106
Q

average pH of the oceans

A

8.1 and ranges from about 8.0 to 8.3.

107
Q

Carbon dioxide (CO2) combines with water (H2O) to form __________.

A

carbonic acid (H2CO3)

108
Q

In regions with low rates of precipitation and high rates of evaporation, the halocline will __________.

A

decrease in salinity with depth

109
Q

As the salinity of seawater increases, its:

A

density increases

110
Q

A layer of rapidly changing salinity with depth is called a ________.

A

halocline

111
Q

The density curve for high latitudes shows ________ density at the surface and ________ density at depth.

A

decreased, increased

112
Q

The salinity curve for low latitudes shows ________ salinity at the surface and ________ salinity at depth.

A

increased, decreased

113
Q

We might expect to encounter brackish ocean surface water __________.

A

off the coast of Washington and Oregon

114
Q

Why might we expect to encounter brackish ocean surface water off the coast of Washington and Oregon?

A

The high volume of fresh water added by the Columbia River lowers surface salinity.

115
Q

brackish

A

Brackish water is water that has more salt than freshwater, but not as much as seawater. It may result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries, or it may occur in brackish fossil aquifers. The word comes from the Middle Dutch root “brak”

116
Q

change in state from solid to gas

A

sublimation

117
Q

A layer in the ocean where a rapid change in ocean density occurs with a change in depth is called a:

A

pycnocline

118
Q

A rapid change in ocean temperature with a change in depth occurs in the:

A

thermocline

119
Q

what areas of the oceans are isopycnal and isothermal?

A

the high latitudes

120
Q

isopycnal

A

points in the ocean where the water has the same density.

121
Q

iso-

A

equal

122
Q

isothermal

A

points in the ocean where the water has the same temperature

123
Q

cline

A

a continuum with an infinite number of gradations from one extreme to the other. 1930s: from Greek klinein ‘to slope.’

124
Q

density of seawater

A

an increase in salinity increases density, a decrease in temperature increases seawater density, an increase of pressure with depth has a negligible efffect on density

oceanography (9 decks)

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