All Flashcards
Used to detect tuberculosis and leprosy causing bacteria of the genus mycobacterium
Ziehl Neelsen acid fast stain
Polysaccharide layer surrounding outside of many bacteria; can act as a barrier to many host defense mechanism
Capsule
Same as dark field
Flagellar staining and endoscopy
Before true nucleus, no membrane enclosed structure’s, only a sexual reproduction, single celled organism
Prokaryotic
True nucleus, membrane enclosed structure, sexual or asexual reproduction
Eukaryotic
Above kingdom level
Domain
Three domains exist
2 prokaryotic- domain arches and domain bacteria
1 eukaryotic - domain eukarya
Spherical , round -coccus , rodlike-bacillus , spiral, square and triangle
Prokaryotic cells
Diplo
1 plane and cells in pairs
Strepto
Chains
Tetrads
2 planes , 4 cells in a cube
Staphylo
Grapelike clusters
Bacilli
1 plane and end like a train
Bacterial cell structure
Cell membrane, cytoplasm , and external structures
Cell wall and sometimes outer layer
Cell membrane
Contains ribosomes, nuclear region , sometimes granules and vesicles; semifluid substance inside cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Capsules; pili; flagella
External structures
Important part of the outer membrane and can be used to identify gram-negative bacteria
Lipopolysaccharide ( endotoxins)
Proteins interspersed in a mosaic pattern ; mosaic = different types of pieces
Fluid mosaic structure
RNA protein ; protein synthesis
Ribosomes
Contain DNA , RNA , and protein
Nuclear region
Granules
Store glycogen
Vesicles
Contain gas or iron compounds ( magnetisomes)
Some bacteria form these for resistance
Endospores
Found on motile bacteria
Flagellum/flagella
Move toward or away from chemical
Chemotaxis
Move toward or away from light
Photo taxis
Exchange of DNA
Conjugation pili
Help stick to surfaces
Attachment pili(fimbriae)
Contains all polysaccharides that are outside the cell wall
Glycolax
Prevents host cell from destroying a bacterium
Capsule
Bacteria piles on itself ; protects cells from drying out, entraps nutrients and can bind cells together
Slime layer
Each cell receives 1 of each chromosomes found in parent cells
Mitosis
Each cell receives 1 member of each pair of chromosome
Meiosis
Progeny can be ?
Gametes or spores
No ribosomes , makes lipids
Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum
Ribosomes , makes proteins
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Contain digestive enzymes
Lysosomes
Carry out chemical reactions that capture energy ATP
Mitochondria
Capture energy from light
Chloroplasts
Cell skeleton
Cytoskeleton
Beat in coordinated waves of motion , smaller than flagella
Cilia
Cause a creeping movement
Pseudopodia
Eukaryotic cells in plant and fungi kingdoms have this
Cell wall
Means of explaining how we got all the internal structures and organelles from bacteria
Endosymbiosis
Requires no energy
Passive movement
Comes from kinetic energy
Simple diffusion
Kinetic energy
Energy of action
Moves substances from higher to lower concentration
Facilitated diffusion
Movement of water molecules from higher to lower concentration of water
Osmosis
Solution is the pressure required to prevent osmosis
Osmotic pressure
Requires protein carrier , an ATP source , and an enzyme that releases ATP energy
Active transport
Vesicles enters the cell
Endocytosis
Vesicles leaves the cell
Exocytosis
Krebs cycle [TCA cycle]
Oxidation of carbons transfer of electrons to coenzymes, energy capture , total yield of 38 ATPs per glucose molecule
Fatty acid , fat molecule non-water soluble
Beta oxidation
Double membrane
Nuclear envelop
Allows RNA to pass through
Nuclear pores
Semi fluid portion of the nucleus
Nucleoplasm
Requires energy to make complex molecules to simpler ones
Anabolism
Releases energy to break down complex molecules to simpler ones
Catabolism
Loss of electrons
Oxidation
Gain of electrons
Reduction
Oxidation and reductions occur simultaneously
Redox reactions
Autotrophy
Self feeding
Heterotrophy
Other feeding
Capture energy in a form that cells can use
Catabolic
Make the complex molecules that form the structure of cells ; enzymes and other molecules
Anabolic
Ends in (-ase)
Enzymes
Non protein organic molecule bound to an enzyme
Coenzyme
Improve the fit to the enzyme with its substrate usually magnesium or zinc
Cofactor
Factors that affect enzyme reactions
Time , temperature , pH, and concentration of substrate , product and enzyme
Chemical reaction reaches a steady state , no net changes in concentration of substrates or products
Chemical equilibrium
Break down of glucose sugar , do not require oxygen
Glycolysis
4 important events of Embden Meyerhof Pathway
- Transfer of phosphate groups from ATP to glucose
- Breakdown glucose into 2x3 carbon molecules
- Transfer of 2 electrons to the coenzyme NAD
- Capture energy ATP which is 2 molecules net
Anaerobic metabolism of the pyruvic acid produced in glycolysis
Fermentation
Pyruvic acid converted directly to lactic acid , produces no gas, occurs in lactibacillus , streptococci
Homolactic acid
Release from pyruvic acid to form acetaldehyde then reduced to ethyl alcohol
Alcoholic
Aerobes
Requires oxygen
Anaerobes
Do not require oxygen
Use oxygen if available but can function without it
Facultative anaerobes
Bacterial cell duplicates it components and divides into 2 cells
Binary fission
Small new cell develops from the surface of an existing cell and then separates from the parent cell
Budding
Phases of growth
Lag , log , stationary , death
Factors affecting bacterial growth
Physical and nutritional factors
pH levels
Acidophiles = 0.1-5.4, neutrophils=5.4-8.0
Alkaliphile=7.5-11.5
Temperature lovers
Psychrophiles = cold water Mesophiles= medium temp Thermophiles = hot water loving
The first vaccine for human use produced using recombinant DNA technology was?
Polio vaccine
Consists of a plastic tray with 20 microtubes, 7 digit profile
API (analytical profile index)
15 different tests, 5 digit is number for gram negative bacteria
Enetreotube
The study of heredity
Genetics
The transmission of DNA ( or RNA in viruses) from an organism to its progeny
Heredity
Threadlike molecules of DNA that contain genetic information essential for survival
Chromosome
The basic unit of heredity
Gene
A permanent alteration in the DNA
Mutation
DNA contains 4 nitrogenous bases
Adenine, thymine , guanine, and cytosine
Bonds closely to certain proteins to form two kinds of ribosome subunits
Ribosomal RNA
Synthesized in units that contain sufficient information to direct the synthesis of one or more polypeptide chain
Messenger RNA
Transfers amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosomes for replacement in a protein molecule
Transfer RNA
Several ribosomes attached at different points along an mRNA molecule
Polyribosome
The significance of Regulatory mechanisms
Grow in large numbers of relatively inexpensively
Produce many new generations quickly
A variety of mutations are observed in a relatively short time
Categories of regulatory mechanisms
Feedback inhibition
Enzyme induction
Enzyme repression
The genetic information contained in the DNA of the organism
Genotype
The specific characteristics displayed by the organism
Phenotype
Base substitution where one base is substituted for another at a specific location in a gene
Point mutation
The insertion or deletion of one or more nucleotides
Frame shit mutation
Occur in the absence of any known mutagen and appear to be due to errors in base pairing during DNA replication
Spontaneous mutation
Mutations produced by agents call mutagens
Induced mutations
Increase the mutation rate
Mutagens
Causes the formation of dimers
Radiation
Repairs of DNA damage
Light repair and dark repair
Demonstrates that resistance to chemical substances occurs spontaneously
Fluctuation test
Demonstrates the spontaneous nature of mutations
Replica plating
Used for screening chemicals for mutagenic properties
Ames test
The movement of genetic information between organisms
Gene transfer
Combining of genes DNA from step different cells
Recombination
When genes pass from parents to offspring
Vertical gene transfer
They pass genes to other microbes of their same generation
Lateral gene transfer
Composed of a core of nucleic acid covered by a protein coat
Phages
Uses an enzyme that is activated by visible light and that breaks bonds between pyrimidines of a dimer
Light repair
Uses several enzymes that do not require light for activation
Dark repair
Genetic engineering consists of ?
Genetic fusion , protoplasm fusion , gene amplification , hybridomas
Significance of transformation
It contributes to genetic diversity
Can be used to introduce DNA Into organism
Can be used to create recombinant DNA
Genetic material is carried by a bacteriophage
Transduction
Significance of transduction
Transfers genetic material and demonstrates a close evolutionary relationship between prophage and host cell DNA
Large quantities of DNA are transferred from one organism to another
Conjugation
Extrachromosomal DNA molecules
Plasmids
The manipulation of genetics material to alter the characteristics of an organism
Genetic engineering
The addition of plasmids to microorganisms in order to increase the yield of useful gene products
Gene amplification
Combines organisms without cell walls allowing them to mix their genetic information
Protoplast fusion
Enzyme that recognizes specific sequences of 4 to 8 base pairs of DNA weren’t then cuts across to create a restriction fragment
Restriction endonucleases
How’s the transposition and joining of jeans from two separate jeans that were originally located at different positions on the chromosome
Genetic fusion
Results when a new DNA is produced by taking genes from one kind of organism and introducing them into genome of another different organism
Transgenic
Significance of conjugation
It increases genetic diversity , may represent an evolutionary stage between asexual and sexual reproduction, and it provides a means of mapping genes in bacterial Chromosomes
