All Flashcards
1
Q
Hypothesis
A
A testable statement/prediction which the researcher believes to be true
2
Q
Operationalisation
A
Clearly defining the how the variables can be tested in detail
3
Q
Directional/one tailed hypothesis
A
Predicts the direction the results will be
4
Q
Non directional/two tailed hypothesis
A
Does not predict the direction of the results, but states there will be a relationship
5
Q
Null hypothesis
A
Statement which says there will be no effect
6
Q
Aim
A
A general statement which the researcher wants to investigate
7
Q
Experiment
A
A scientific method/research method that investigates a hypothesis and to show cause and effect (which has an IV and DV)
8
Q
Independent Variable
A
The variable which is manipulated by the researcher to have an effect on the dv
9
Q
Dependant variable
A
Is measured by the researcher
10
Q
Experiment types
A
Laboratory, field, natural, quasi
11
Q
Laboratory experiment
A
An experiment in a controlled setting to manipulate the IV into having an effect on the DV
12
Q
Quasi experiment
A
Usually in a lab, but instead of manipulating the IV using already existing differences such as age and gender
13
Q
Natural experiment
A
No manipulation of IV as there are natural differences and no random allocation but can study effects of these
14
Q
Field experiment
A
In a natural environment where the IV is manipulated but without those being aware
15
Q
Experimental designs types
A
Independent groups, matched pairs, repeated measures
16
Q
Independent groups
A
Each member is randomly allocated to just one condition
17
Q
Repeated measures
A
Each member gets to experiences both conditions at different times
18
Q
Matched pairs
A
Pairs are matched based on similarities as close as possible and then randomly allocated to either group
19
Q
Experimental design
A
The way individuals are allocated to the conditions
20
Q
Target population
A
The people that the researcher wants to study, and needs to be representative to be generalised to target population
21
Q
Sampling types
A
Opportunity, volunteer, systematic, stratified, random
22
Q
Opportunity sampling
A
Where those who are most available are asked if they want to participate
23
Q
Volunteer sampling
A
Individuals are asked to volunteer to participate through advertisements
24
Q
Random sampling
A
Everyone had an equal chance as everyone is identified and a random technique is used such as names in a hat
25
Systematic sampling
Names are gathered such as from a register and then a system is used such as every 5th name
26
Stratified sampling
Target population is found, and then divisors into factors for equal proportions and then random sampling is used
27
Sample
A group of participants that reflects the target population
28
Ethics
Ethics are the moral principles which given the conducting of an activity. Committees govern this by approving proposals. The bps have guidance on ethical research.
29
Code of ethics
Integrity, competence, respect and responsibility
30
Respect
Psychologist value respecting the participants such as their privacy and dignity.
31
Responsibility
Psychologist have a responsibility of the participants, public and workers. Such as protecting them from harm and abuse.
32
Competence
Psychologist value only doing work which is within their knowledge and skills/experience to make it high standard.
33
Integrity
Psychologists value honesty and fairness for everyone involved and in all areas.
34
Ethical issues
Ethical issues are the issues that can arise in research which breach the individuals rights. Therefore psychologist have to follow the BPS to prevent ethical issues.
35
The types of ethical issues
Informed consent, debrief, confidentiality, deception, right to withdraw, protection from harm
36
Informed consent
Informed consent is when the individuals get informed on what they will be doing so they can give informed consent.
37
Deception
Deception is when the individuals do not fully know the aim of the experiment
38
Confidentiality
Confidentiality is when the participants privacy is respected and they are kept anonymous
39
Right to withdraw
Is when participants understand they can withdraw at any time and take their information with them
40
Protection from harm
Is when the participants physical and psychological health is protected
41
Debrief
This covers what the full aim was, and allows any questions to be asked
42
Validity
Made up of internal and external
43
Internal validity
is the extent to which it measured what it claims to measure, and that the results are due to the manipulation and not other variables.
44
External validity
is the extent to which the results can be generalised to setting such as ecological, historical and population validity.
45
Reliability
Reliability is the extent to which the test is consistent and if the same results are received on different occasions.
46
Replication
Repeating the test in the same settings to assess reliability.
47
Confounding variables
Type of extraneous variables that vary just like the IV
48
Extraneous variables
Variables that vary. Participant - social desirability, demand characteristics. Investigator - cues. Environmental - time, noise.
49
Ecological validity
The extent to which the results can generalise to the real world
50
Pilot test
A small version/tester to check the methods, materials, demand characteristics and procedures which increases internal validity.
51
Increasing internal validity
Single blind study’s, double, pilot test, same time…, control group, counter balancing
52
Measures of central tendancy
Tells us about the middle value: mode, median, mean
53
Measures of dispersion
Tells us about how spread out the data is: range and standard deviation
54
Mean
Adding up the values then dividing by how many there are
55
Mode
The most common value
56
Median
Put the values in order and chose the middle value
57
Range
Take away the lowest value from the biggest value
58
Standard deviation
How spread the numbers are around the mean. The bigger the value the more spread out they are and a greater variability of scores.
59
Graphical representation
A graph that shows findings, has a title, x&y.
60
Bar chart
Used when there’s an iv and dv. Iv is horizontal, dv is vertical and equally spaced.
61
Levels of measurement
Quantitative data can be divided into different level of measurements: nominal, ordinal and interval
62
Nominal data
Data is in categories, can only be in one categories, lacks precision, eg long or short hair
63
Ordinal data
Data is ordered somehow (rank order), not with equal intervals, lacks precision, eg a scale
64
Internal data
Based on scaled, with equal units, precise, only this if words are of the same difficulty
65
Statistical tests
Used to see if findings are due to chance or if the results are significant
66
Significance and probability
Psychologists use significance level of 0.05 and of the p number is less or equal it is significant. This has a 95% accuracy rate.
67
Inferential statistics
r - (relationship) strength/correlation co-efficient
p - (probability) it was due to chance
n - (number) of participants
68
Inferential to statistical tests
A statistical test decided which hypothesis is rejected/accepted
69
Choosing a test
1. Test of difference or correlation
2. What is the experimental design
3. What data was collected
70
Correlational analysis
No IV or Dv just covariables which are strong or weak and positive or negative
71
Correlation
The relationship between to variables
72
Types of correlation
Positive - both variables increase together
Negative - one increases as other decreases
No - no correlation/relationship
73
Correlation graphs
A scatter graph which has a x and y axis (either covarable) and where the scores meet are plotted with an x
74
Correlation coefficient
This is the relation ship strength and direction of the results due to a statistics test. It gives a number from -1 to +1. - is a negative, + is a positive and this is weak or strong…
75
Self report
Where the individual provides information about their feelings. Includes questionnaires and interviews.
76
Questionnaires
Questions are written down before hand so the investigator cannot bias the way it is asked
77
Question type
Open or closed.
78
Sub set questions
Dichotomous, multiple choice, likert scale, rank order
79
Dichotomous questions
Are yes or no questions which allows it to be organised into groups
80
Multiple choice questions
Individuals get to chose the one or many from a list of options
81
Likert scale
The individuals respond to a statement on a scale.
82
Rank order questions
Rank presences in order, to understand weight of each option
83
Questions to avoid
Double negatives, emotive language, technical language, clustered answers, ambiguity
84
Piloting
At least one try is the questionnaires to arise any questions/misinterpretations and for feedback
85
Good features in a questionnaire
Non clustering, wording backwards (likert scale), supported by tests of validity
86
Interview types
Structured interview, semi structured, unstructured and groups
87
Structured interview
Participants are asked questions in the same way and order, not elaborating or prompting
88
Semi structured interview
Participants are allowed to elaborate through follow up questions to understand participants
89
Unstructured interview
They use open ended questions as the main point is understanding individuals perspectives
90
Observational research
Watching and recording behaviour in person, through a recording, one way mirror or checklist
91
Controlled and Naturalistic
Controlled is when it is in a lab to control variables, naturalistic is when it is in a natural environment
92
Overt and Covert
Covert: unaware they are in a study
Overt: aware
93
Participant and non-participant
Participant: observer becomes part of group
Non-participant: observer remains separate
94
Behavioural categories
They record using categories which are defined and observable. Either event sampling, record how many times a behaviour occurs or time sampling, record it in a time frame.
95
Pilot study (observations)
To make sure equipment is right and that they can hear/see participants as well as making sure coding is right.
96
Assessing reliability (observations)
Pilot test, conduct two times
97
Improving reliability (observations)
2 observers, operationalised categories, communicate, record data
98
Case study
Detailed investigation of an individual, group or event for a long period of time. Information is from individual and people close to the individual. Those studied are unique.
99
Methods used in case studies
Observations, interviews and questionnaires. May also use experimental and psychological testing for more information. This therefore can produce both qualitative and quantitative information.
100
Case studies examples
Phineas Gage, Anna O, Little Albert and Kitty Genovese
101
Group interview
Meaning, beliefs and group norms are collected through a group. This challenges beliefs and add to them. Usually 8-10 and from an hour to 2 and half.
102
Content analysis
A statistical process which categorises events/behaviours. It is a type of observation which studies indirectly via their communications. This uses qualitative research and converts this to quantitative to statistically analyse this.
103
Content analysis procedure
1. Choose sample
2. Thoroughly understand the data
3. Decide on the unit of analysis/what needs to be counted
4. Sort coding manual and schedule
5. Go through the data repeatedly
6. Do the coding schedule using the manual
7. Assess reliability through repeating the analysis and getting someone to do it at a separate time
104
Thematic Analysus
By Braun and Clarke (2006) which is a way to analyse qualitative data and put it into themes.
This can be done either bottom up (data driven) or top down (theory driven)
105
Thematic analysis process
1. Read and analyse the data to make sense of it, really engage.
2. Generate initial codes - those related to the question.
- can be selective coding (that is interested in) or complete coding (anything that relates to the research).
- can be data driven (mirror what p’s said) or researcher driven (based on the framework).
- put this in a table.
3. Searching for themes - patterns of codes which shows the most important features (meaningful over quantity). Themes have to be actively identified, they don’t just merge.
4. Review themes - check it’s really meaningful to research question
5. Name the themes - describe and name.
6. Write the report - with evidence of themes from this
106
Transcribing data (thematic analysis)
• transcript - the interpretation between audio and transcriber.
Notation system - clear translation of spoken language into written
107
Good quality transcription
• all verbal utterances
No changes
Who is speaking
What is said
Anonymous
108
Reliability - qualitative vs quantitative
In quantitative it is a important to make genrliable laws to minimise effect of researcher
However in quantitative data is derived from the interaction and this considers skills/Experience.
Therefore it is trust not reliability
109
Validity quantitative vs qualitative
Qualitative says it’s not meaningful to generalise as the data comes from context, however some say it is valid just not as much as quantitative.
Quantitative says no point if it has no relevance to other studies.
Therefore transferability is better than validity
- this is the extent to which research can be transferred to people, settings and times.
- therefore settings, people and times need to be described in detail to see if the results can be transferred
110
Member validation
Checking analysis with p’s so they can comment on trustworthiness/reliability to make sure not being misrepresented.
111
Triangulation
2 or more methods of data collection to get closer to the truth instead of assuming. As this allowed a fuller story and multiple voices.
112
Reflexivity and types of reflexivity, and how to be reflexive
Critical reflection of the research process and practice, which is a role of the researcher and part of quality control.
1. Functional - critically considering how the research process and tools might have affected the research.
2. Personal - making the researcher visible in the process (unlike quantitative) as who we are may impact research as people can make assumptions, or we can make assumptions.
• have a rea search journal for feelings, thoughts, and reflections of the process.
