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Question 1

Each hemisphere is divided into what four lobes?

Answer 1

Frontal. Parietal - top of the brain. Occipital - back of the brain. Temporal - sides.

Question 2

How are the infoldings and bumps on the brain lobes called?

Answer 2

Infoldings - sulcus (sulci).

Bumps - gyrus (gyri).

Question 3

What ion causes depolarisation (more positive)? What ion causes hyperpolarisation (even more negative)?

Answer 3

Depolarisation - Na+. Excitatory post-synaptic potential.

Hyperpolarisation - Cl-. Inhibitory post-synaptic potential.

Question 4

What is signal integration ?

Answer 4

Sum of all the individual EPSPs and IPSPs.

Question 5

Motor output comes from the motor cortex, which projects through X to Y, where it synapses with Z. What’s X, Y, and Z?

Answer 5

Pyramidal Tracts.
Spinal Cord.
Peripheral Motor Neurons. Other pathways run parallel from cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum via brainstem and spinal cord - called extrapyramidal system.

Question 6

Motor control systems in the cortex are … ?

Answer 6

1. Primary motor cortex - source of pyramidal tract neurons.
2. Supplementary motor cortex - conception or initiation of movement. Lesions cause deficits in voluntary movement or speech.
3. Premotor cortex - important in motor coordination. Lesions cause impairments in stability of stance and gait.

Question 7

What does basal ganglia do ?

Answer 7

It basically modulates motor activity patterns.

Question 8

Where are the sound waves converted into vibration ? Organ of … ?

Answer 8

Basilar membrane ?

Organ of Corti.

Question 9

Deafness causes (three) ?

Answer 9

1. Sensorineural - inability of the auditory nerve fibres to be excited in the normal manner.
2. Conduction - disorders of the outer or middle ear, which prevent sound vibrations reaching the cochlea.
3. Central - damage in the brain.

Question 10

What is analgesia ? Where in brain is it believed to be a pain perception “centre” ?

Answer 10

It is the modulation of pain/nociception.

Probably cingulate cortex.

Question 11

What molecule blocks analgesia ?

Answer 11

Naloxone.

Question 12

Three types of opioid analgesia .. ?

Answer 12

I. Spinal - delta and kappa receptors - enkephalins, dynorphins.
II. Subraspinal - opioid receptor activation in the brain stem. mu receptors - morphine and endorphins.
III. Hormonal - adrenal, etc.

Question 13

Non opioid-analgesia .. ?

Answer 13

i. Brain stem - noradrenaline and 5HT (serotonin)
ii. Spinal cord - noradrenaline blocks response to noxious stimuli, 5HT is analgesic.
iii. Periphery - anti-histamines and anti-inflammatories reduce impact of the injury, local anaesthetics.
iv. Others can include - stress, TENS, acupuncture, hypnosis, cognitive, placebo.

Question 14

What is longitudinal fissure and corpus callosum ?

Answer 14

Longitudinal fissure “splits” brain in two and they communicate through the corpus callosum (large tract of neurones connecting two sides).

Question 15

What part of the brain is responsible for circadian rhythm ?

Answer 15

Superchiasmatic Nucleus, which is located above optic chasm.

Question 16

Where is it believed that sleep is modulated in the brain ?

Answer 16

Probably midbrain.

Question 17

Three dominating theories of mental disorders … ?

Answer 17

1. Psychodynamic - unconscious.
2. Behavioural - reinforcement/punishment.
3. Cognitive - interacting with the world.
4. Humanistic - pursueing own values and goals.

Question 18

OCD is usually treated with … ?

Answer 18

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy.

Question 19

Types of Schizophrenia.

Answer 19

I. Disorganized Schizophrenia: disorganized speech and behaviours, less occurence.
II. Catatonic Schizophrenia: dramatic reduction in activity, voluntary movement might even stop.
III. Paranoid Schizophrenia: delusions, hallucinations.

Question 20

What is borderline personality disorder.

Answer 20

BPD is a pervasive pattern of instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotion as well as marked impulsivity beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by five (or more) of these criteria:
fear of abandonment – unstable interpersonal relationships – identity disturbance – impulsive behaviour – emotional instability – suicidal behaviour – emptiness – anger – dissociative symptoms or paranoia.

Question 21

Stress response hormone ? all chain of them

Answer 21

Firstly a release of corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF), then corticotrophin release, release of stress hormones (glucocorticoids (which ultimately stops release of CRF) and adrenaline) from the adrenal cortex.

Question 22

Explain: tricyclic antideppresants vs. monoamine oxidase inhibitors.

Answer 22

MAOI prevent the breakdown of dopamine, 5HT and noradrenaline.
Tricyclics prevent the reuptake of serotonin and noradrenaline.

Question 23

What is natural motivation pathway in human ?

Answer 23

Dopaminergic mesolimbi pathway.

Question 24

Necrosis can happen because 1, 2, and 3 ?

Answer 24

1. Excitotoxicity.
2. Oxidative Stress.
3. Toxicity from external sources.

Question 25

Alzheimer’s disease - X plaques and neurofibrilallary Y. What’s X and Y?

Answer 25

X - amyloid. Y - tangles

Question 26

Two types of strokes .. ?

Answer 26

Ischaemic - blockage of blood vessel.

Haemorrhagic - burst of blood vessel.

Question 27

Extinction vs generalisation in CLASSICAL CONDITIONING.

Answer 27

Generalisation - generalising fairly similar unconditioned stimulus to the response.
Extinction - eliminating of original learning of conditioned stimulus/response. (it comes back after some time)

Question 28

Types of long-term memory.

Answer 28

i. Episodic - personal events that happened in the past - like first time trying to swim.
ii. Semantic - general knowledge of the world - like what is a swimming pool.
iii. Procedural - how to do things - how to swim.
i and ii are explicit (declarative) memory which is conscious and can be explained, whereas iii is implicit and unconscious, very hard or impossible to explain in words.

Question 29

Proactive vs retroactive interference.

Answer 29

Proactive - older events interact with newer events.
Retroactive - newer events interact with older events.
The greater the similarity between the two, the greater the chance of interference to occur.