Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Visceral Anatomy Quiz 4 > Alimentary 2-5 > Flashcards

Alimentary 2-5 Flashcards

1
Q

List whether the following are retroperitoneal or suspended organs:

a) ascending colon
b) transverse colon
c) descending colon
d) sigmoid colon

A

a) retro
b) suspended
c) retro
d) suspended

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

True or False: the small intestines begin at the pyloric sphincter of stomach and ends at the caecum

A

False: ends at ileocaecal valve

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

True or false: the duodenum is approximately 25cm, the jejunum is remaining 3/5ths and the ileum is the remaining 2/5ths

A

False: jejunum is 2/5ths and ileum is 3/5ths

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

True or false: the first part of the duodenum is suspended by the greater and lesser omentum

A

True: the rest of the duodenum is retroperitoneal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What are the permanent circular folds of the duodenum called?

A

plicae

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

True or false: the plicae of the duodenum are permanent circular folds that are more pronounced in the proximal duodenum

A

true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

which is these is FALSE regarding the first part of the duodenum:

a) attached to the posterior body wall
b) posterior is the portal vein and bile duct
c) anterior is the gall bladder and quadrate lobe of the liver
d) also known as duodenum cap

A

a) attached to greater and lesser omentum

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

which of these is FALSE regarding the second part of the duodenum:

a) posterior is the hilum of the right kidney
b) the bile and main pancreatic duct empty into major duodenal papilla
c) the head of the pancreas is distal
d) the lesser duodenal papilla for the accessory bile duct may be above the major duodenal bile duct

A

c) head of the pancreas is medial

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

True or false: The third part of the duodenum is in front of the right psoas

A

true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

True or false: the third part of the duodenum is in front of the superior mesenteric vessels, unicate process, and head of pancreas

A

false: its behind all those structures

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

True or false: the fourth part of the duodenum is posterolateral to the left kidney

A

true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

the duodenal junction is between the duodenum and ____ and lies at L_, just medial to the left ____

A

jejunum, L2, kidney

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

true or false: both the jejunum and ileum are suspended organs with internal transverse folds

A

true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

The duodenum has three flexures called:

a) Between 1st and 2nd part:
b) Between 2nd and 3rd part:
c) Between 4th and jejunum:

A

a) superior duodenal flexure
b) inferior duodenal flexure
c) duodenojejunal flexure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

true or false: the line between the foregut and midgut lies in the 3rd region of the duodenum

A

false: 2nd region

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

an accessory pancreatic duct goes into the lesser duodenal papilla. this occurs if ___ and ____ ____do not fuse

A

dorsal, ventral, duct

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

The jejunum is found in the lower __ and umbilical region

A

left

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

The ileum is found in the lower ___ and abdominal/pubic region

A

right

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

the root of the jejunal and ileal mesentery runs from the ___ left to ____ right and is ___-shaped.

A

upper, lower, fan

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

true or false: the internal transverse folds of the jejunum and ileum are not obliterated by distention

A

true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

true or false: the internal transverse folds are more striking from the jejunum to ileum

A

false: less striking

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

true or false: transition between jejunum to ileum is gradual

A

true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

true or false: vasa recta are side-to-side anastomoses that join up arcades

A

false: switch them around

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

true or false: the vasa recta arise from the inferior mesenteric artery

A

false: arise from superior mesenteric artery

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

which of these is FALSE regarding the jejunum:

a) long straight vasa recta with few arcades
b) less fatty mesentery
c) less Peyer’s patch’s
d) less vascular and thinner walls
e) larger folds and longer villi

A

d) more vascular & thicker walls

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

which of these is FALSE regarding the ileum:

a) shorter vasa recta with more arcades
b) fattier mesentery
c) presence of Peyer’s patch’s
d) less vascular and thinner walls
e) decreasing folds and longer villi

A

e) decreasing folds and SHORTER villi

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

True or false: the main role of the large intestines is digestion and absorption of nutrients

A

false: absorption of water and ions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

True or false: the large intestine begins at the ileocaecal junction to the rectum

A

false: goes to the anus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

true or false: the caecum and appendix is suspended

A

true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

True or false: Haustra are bulges of the small intestinal wall with constrictions interspersed with expanded areas of colon

A

false: large intestinal wall

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

true or false: taenia coli are longitudinal external muscular bands as three thickenings that cause haustra

A

true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

True or false: taenia coli are not found in the appendix or rectum junction

A

true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

true or false: epipolic appendices arise form the free wall of the colon throughout the large intestine

A

false: not found in the caecum, appendix.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

true or false: the epipolic appendices are found numerously in the transverse and sigmoid colon

A

true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

true or false: haustra, taenia coli, and epiploic appendices are not found in the appendix or rectum

A

true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

name four defining features of the large intestines

A
  1. haustra
  2. taenia coli
  3. epipolic appendices
  4. lack of villi
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

the caecum is found in the right ___ ____ of the pelvis

A

iliac fossa

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

true or false: the caecum is a suspended organ but has no mesentery, instead it is suspended from the ascending colon

A

true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

the caecum is surrounded by peritoneum except when it connects with the ____ and ____ _____

A

ileum, ascending colon

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

true or false: the horizontal ileocaecal junction is posterolateral and consists of two valves

A

false: it is posteromedial

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

the muscular extensions of the two ileocaecal valves are called:

A

frenulae

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

the appendix is found in the ______ recess

A

retrocaecal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

the appendix is suspended by a ________ attached to the ____ mesentery

A

mesoappendix, ileal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

the appendix opens into the caecum below the ileocaecal valve, known as _____ Point

A

McBurney’s

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

the right colic flexure, also known as the hepatic flexure is:

a) posterior to the inferior right lobe of liver
b) anterior to the right kidney
c) posterior to fundus of gall bladder
d) all of the above

A

d

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

true or false: the transverse colon is firmly attached to the posterior surface of the great omentum

A

true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

the surface landmark for the transverse colon is:

A

umbilicus level

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

the left colic flexure, also known as the splenic flexure, is:

a) anterior to the left kidney
b) below the spleen
c) attached to the diaphragm via the phrenicolic ligament
d) all of the above

A

d

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

which of these is FALSE regarding the phrenicolic ligament:

a) continuous with splenocolic ligament
b) is attached to the splenic (left colic) flexure
c) passes medially under the spleen
d) provides support for spleen

A

c: passes laterally under spleen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

the descending colon goes from the ____ to the ___

A

splenic flexure, pelvic inlet

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

true or false: the descending colon extends down lateral abdominal wall and turns laterally into left iliac fossa to cross gonadal vessels and external iliac vessels

A

false: extends down lateral abdominal wall and turns MEDIALLY into left iliac fossa to cross gonadal vessels and external iliac vessels

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

the sigmoid colon goes from the ____ brim to the middle of the ____ at S_

A

pelvic, sacrum, S3

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

the sigmoid colon overlies the left _____ and external ____ vessels

A

uterer, iliac

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

the sigmoid mesocolon forms an inverted V known as the _______ recess

A

intersigmoidal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

the rectum begins at the mid _____ at S_ and goes to the tip of the ____ where it becomes the anus

A

sacrum, S3, coccyx

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

true or false: the rectum is a suspended organ

A

false: retroperitoneal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

true or false: the sigmoid colon is medial and superior to the rectum

A

false: lateral and superior

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

the rectum curves in how many planes, list them:

A
  1. anteriorly/posteriorly following sacral flexure
    laterally: right, left, right
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

true or false: the rectum has permanent horizontal folds and temporary longitudinal folds.

A

true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

there are ____ permanent horizontal folds which correspond to the lateral curves

A

three

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

the temporary longitudinal folds of the rectum are found in the:

A

rectal ampulla below the middle fold

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

the rectal ampulla is at the level of what pouch?

A

uterine pouch

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

true or false: the peritoneum is loosely attached in the sigmoid colon and tightly attached in the rectum

A

false: opposite way around

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

true or false: in the middle third of the rectum, the anterior portion of the peritoneum forms a rectovesticular or rectouterine pouc

65
Q

true or false: in the lower third of the rectum, the peritoneum covers the anterior and lateral surfaces only

A

false: this is true for the upper 1/3. the lower 1/3 has no peritoneum and the rectum is embedded int he pelvic fascia

66
Q

with reference to the rectum, the pelvic diaphragm is located (multiple true):

a) medially
b) laterally
c) posteriorly
d) anteriorly

67
Q

the rectouterine pouch is also known as:

A

the pouch of douglas

68
Q

the anal canal is _cm long

69
Q

the anal canal runs posteroinferiorly through the _____ to the anus opening

A

pelvic diaphragm

70
Q

the longitudinal elevations of the anal canal are called ____ and the indentations in between are called ______

A

columns, sinuses

71
Q

the puborectalis is part of the levator ani and defines what junction?

A

rectoanal junction

72
Q

which of these is NOT a way to define the rectoanal junction?

a) anal valves
b) top of sinuses
c) puborectalis
d) top of columns

73
Q

the anal valves are _____ folds. the line of valves is known as the _____ _______ line.

A

transverse, pectinate mucocutaneous

74
Q

true or false: before and after the pectinate mucocutaneous line, there are different blood and nerve supplies

75
Q

true or false: the white line is the junction when the mucosal epithelium undergoes transition from non-keratizined stratified squamous epithelium in the rectum to simple columnar and skin in the anus

A

false. simple columnar>non-keratinized stratified squamous>skin

76
Q

true or false: the transitional zone is between the pectinate line and the white line

77
Q

the internal sphincters of the anal canal are part of the anal wall and stop at the ____ line

78
Q

true or false: the external sphincters of the anal canal are outside the external muscle and movement is reflex only

A

false: movement is partially reflex and voluntary

79
Q

which of the following is posterior of the anal canal?

a) perineal body and vagina/bulb of penis
b) anococcygeal ligament
c) ischiorectal fossa
d) puborectalis

80
Q

which of the following is anterior of the anal canal?

a) perineal body and vagina/bulb of penis
b) anococcygeal ligament
c) ischiorectal fossa
d) puborectalis

81
Q

which of the following is lateral of the anal canal?

a) perineal body and vagina/bulb of penis
b) anococcygeal ligament
c) ischiorectal fossa
d) puborectalis

82
Q

the anococcygeal ligament goes from the ____ to the _____

A

coccyx, anal margin

83
Q

what is the name of the reflex that propels ingested food from the small intestines to the large intestines?

A

gastrocolic reflex

84
Q

which of these is FALSE regarding continence?

a) sphincters of anal canal are activated
b) muscles of rectum and sigmoid colon relaxed
c) puborectalis pulls upper part of anal canal forward
d) under parasympathetic control

A

d: under sympathetic control

85
Q

which of these is FALSE regarding defecation?

a) sphincters of anal canal are relaxed
b) faeces from splenic flexure down is voided
c) puborectalis is activated
d) muscles of the descending and sigmoid colon are contracted
e) increased abdominal pressure

A

c: puborectalis is relaxed

86
Q

true or false: the pancreas is a suspended organ

87
Q

where is the pancreas found?

A

behind the lesser sac in the stomach bed

88
Q

true or false: the dorsal pancreas rotates anteriorly and fuses with the ventral pancreas

A

false: the ventral pancreas rotates posteriorly to fuse with the dorsal pancreas

89
Q

the main pancreatic duct arises from the dorsal or ventral bud

90
Q

the accessory pancreatic duct arises from the dorsal or ventral bud

91
Q

the ventral duct drains:

A

inferior head & unicate process

92
Q

the head of the pancreas is medial to the ________

A

2nd part of duodenum

93
Q

the superior mesenteric vessels pass __ to the head and ____ to the unicate process

A

medial, anterior

94
Q

the IVC and aorta are _________ to the pancreas

95
Q

true or false: the transverse mesocolon is attached to the anterior body of pancreas

96
Q

in the head of the pancreas, the anterio____ surface faces the lesser sac and the anterior______ surface faces the greater sac

A

superior, inferior

97
Q

the tail of the pancreas accompanies splenic vessels into the _______ ligament

A

splenorenal

98
Q

true or false: the splenic vessels run along the posterior boarder of the pancreas

A

false: superior

99
Q

the main pancreatic duct drains into the ____ duodenal papilla

100
Q

if the bile duct and main pancreatic duct join before or after entering the major duodenal papilla, it is known as the:

A

hepatopancreatic ampulla

101
Q

The spleen develops in mesenchyme of the ____ mesentery:

102
Q

the spleen is a _________ organ

103
Q

notching occurs on what border of the spleen?

104
Q

list the two functions of the spleen:

A
  1. recycling of RBCs (75% volume of spleen)

2. production of lymphocytes (white pulp)

105
Q

list the two ligaments the spleen is suspended by:

A
  1. gastrosplenic (spleen = stomach)

2. splenorenal (spleen = pancreas)

106
Q

the long axis of the spleen is parallel to what rib?

107
Q

list the four borders of the spleen and their appearance:

A
  1. anterior: sharp
  2. superior: notched
  3. posterior: rounded
  4. inferior: n/a
108
Q

name the four impressions of the spleen

A
  1. gastric: from stomach, broad concave above hilus
  2. renal: kidney, below hilus
  3. colic: transverse colon/left colic flexure
  4. pancreatic: small, usually not visible
109
Q

true or false: the hilar surface of the spleen is flattened

110
Q

true or false: the liver is a retroperitoneal organ

A

false (suspended)

111
Q

which of these is NOT a function of the liver:

a) recycling of RBCs
b) creation of bile to digest fats (exocrine)
c) metabolism of carbohydrates and proteins
d) detoxification
e) haemopoiesis
f) storage and release of glucose (endocrine)

A

a (function of spleen)

112
Q

the liver extends from the _th rib to the ___________

A

5th, costal margin

113
Q

the gall bladder protrudes from the liver at the level of the _th costal cartilage and the linea ______

A

9th, semilunaris

114
Q

true or false: the visceral surface of the liver is anterior

A

false (posterior, anterior is diaphragmatic)

115
Q

the _____ ligament from the _____ mesentery runs between the left and right hepatic lobes anteriorly and attaches to the _______ wall.

A

falciform, ventral, abdominal

116
Q

true or false: the caudate lobe is more superior than the quadrate lobe

117
Q

the hilum of the liver is called the:

A

porta hepatis

118
Q

the two ligaments above and below the porta hepatis are (respectively):

A

ligamentum venosum, ligamentum teres

119
Q

the coronary ligament attaches the liver to the ____ from the ___ area

A

diaphragm, bare

120
Q

the coronary ligament is made up of the left and right _____ ligament

A

triangular

121
Q

list the parts of the left and right functional lobe:

A

left lobe: left anatomical lobe, quadrate, caudate

right lobe: right anatomical lobe

122
Q

the portal vein is ___ rich and the hepatic proper arteries are _____ rich

A

nutrient, oxygen

123
Q

in the liver: the portal and hepatic veins & arteries drain into portal ____ which drain into sinusoids of ______. the lobules drain into ____ veins and then the hepatic veins which then break into three ___ veins and multiple ___ veins into the IVC

A

triads, lobules, central, upper, smaller

124
Q

true or false: the superior portion of the liver attaches to the right dome of the diaphragm and central tendon

125
Q

the ligamentum teres runs anteriorly to form the ______

A

round ligament/bottom part of falciform ligament

126
Q

true or false: the lesser omentum surrounds the porta hepatis and then inferiorly into the fissure of the ligamentum venosum

A

false: superiorly

127
Q

the ligament between the umbilicus and left portal vein:

A

ligamentum teres

128
Q

the ligament between the left branch of the portal vein and IVC:

A

ligamnetum venosum

129
Q

true or false: the lesser omentum is attached to the ligamentum teres

A

false: it is attached to the ligamentum venosum

130
Q

the gall bladder can be found in the fossa of the ____ surface in the ____ hepatic lobe

A

posterior, right

131
Q

list the three parts of the gall bladder:

A
  1. fundus: below margin of the liver
  2. body
  3. neck: closest to cystic duct
132
Q

the cystic artery comes off the ____ branch of the _____ artery

A

right, hepatic proper

133
Q

gall bladder ducts: the left and right _____ duct merge just below the ____ to form the main _____ duct. the main ______ duct then joins the _____ duct to form the bile duct. the bile duct passes through the free edge of the _____ omentum, behind the first part of the ______, and then onto the posterior surface of the ____ of the pancreas to come into close proximity with the main _____ duct. if they fuse before entering the greater ____ papilla, they are known as the ___________ ampulla.

A

hepatic, hilum, hepatic, hepatic, cystic, lesser, duodenum, head, pancreatic, duodenal, hepatopancreatic

134
Q

true or false: the superior mesenteric nodes drain to foregut and are preaortic

A

false: drain the midgut

135
Q

true or false: the inferior mesenteric nodes are part of the preaortic group

136
Q

preganglionic fibres come from _____ and _____ splanchnic nerves

A

thoracic, lumbar

137
Q

true or false: splanchnic nerve are mostly parasympathetic, except in the pelvic ones are sympathetic

A

false: opposite way around

138
Q

in the foregut,
sympathetic supplied by:
parasympathetic supplied by:

A

coeliac ganglion from preganglionic thoracic splanchnic nerves

vagus nerve

139
Q

in the midgut,
sympathetic supplied by:
parasympathetic supplied by:

A

superior mesenteric ganglion from the thoracic splanchnic nerves

vagus nerve

140
Q

in the hindgut,
sympathetic supplied by:
parasympathetic supplied by:

A

inferior mesenteric ganglion from the lumbar splanchnic sympathetic fibres

pelvic splanchnics from sacral parasympathetic outflow

141
Q

sympathetic stimulation of the gut increases/decreases motility + vasoconstriction

142
Q

parasympathetic stimulation of the gut increases/decreases motility + secretion

143
Q

name the three branches of the coeliac trunk and main regions of supply:

A
  1. common hepatic artery: liver, stomach, pancreas
  2. left gastric: lesser curvature of stomach
  3. splenic: spleen and greater curvature of stomach
144
Q

the splenic artery splits into:

A
  1. left gastroepiploic which supplies the greater curvature
  2. short gastric arteries: greater curvature + fundus
  3. three splenic arteries to spleen
145
Q

the common hepatic artery splits into the hepatic artery proper (to the liver), the gastroduodenal and the right gastric artery. explain what happens to the last two mentioned

A
  1. gastroduodenal splits into
    - left gastroepiploic lower greater curvature of stomach
    - superior anterior + posterior pancreaticoduodenal to head + uncinate process of pancreas
  2. right gastric artery supplies the lesser curvature
146
Q

list the six branches of the SMA:

A
  1. inferior anterior + posterior pancreaticoduodenal
  2. jejunal
  3. ileal
  4. ileocolic
  5. right colic
  6. middle colic
147
Q

list the three branches of the IMA:

A
  1. left colic
  2. sigmoid
  3. superior rectal
148
Q

true or false: the marginal artery allows anastomoses of the SMA and IMA

149
Q

the marginal artery is approximately _cm parallel to the gut loop

150
Q

the portal vein is formed in what order?

A

splenic vein –> inferior mesenteric vein –> superior mesenteric vein –> portal vein

151
Q

the inferior and middle rectal arteries come from the:

A

internal iliac artery

152
Q

the ____ venous plexus drains mostly to the _____ ______ artery and can form __________

A

internal, inferior mesenteric, haemorrhoids

153
Q

the ______ venous plexus drains to what three veins:

A

inferior mesenteric vein, pudenal vein, internal iliac vein

154
Q

lymph in the lower anal canal drains to the:

A

superficial inguinal nodes

155
Q

the rectum is autonomic except for the lower anal canal which is somatic supplied by _____ nerve from S2-4

156
Q

the pancreas is supplied by the ______ artery

157
Q

the head and uncinate process of the pancreas is additionally supplied by the:

A

superior and inferior anterior and posterior pancreaticoduodenal artery anastomoses

158
Q

lymph in the liver is drained via the space of ____

Visceral Anatomy Quiz 4 (1 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2025 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions