Alexander II, the Tsar Liberator, and autocracy and modernisation, 1855-94 Flashcards
What was the belief of Slavophiles?
Russia had its own distinct way of life which was superior of that of the West
When did Alexander II assume power?
Feb 1855
When was the Emancipation of the Serfs?
1861
3 reasons for the emancipation?
Moral case - “owning souls” was evil
Crimean war - army mainly composed of peasants
Risk of revolt - serious peasant revolts since 1840s
2 consequences of emancipation?
Peasants felt cheated as they still did not own the land they worked, yet had to pay for it over 49 years
Some enterprising peasants became kulaks; renting land from nobles and hiring labour
When were the local government and legal reforms?
1864
3 aspects of the local government reforms
The gov introduced a measure of self-government at provincial and district levels in the form of the zemstva (councils), elected every three years by nobles, peasants, town dwellers
These had general responsibilities for health, education, maintenance of roads and bridges and local economic affairs
The electoral system favoured the nobility, who formed 40% of district zemstva and over 70% of provincial councils, to compensate for the emancipation
3 consequences of local government reform
Zemstva brought improvements to their areas, building better roads, health facilities, schools, etc of lasting benefit
Nobles and others running the councils gained political experience, with many wanting an extension to a national level
Members of the third element gained increasingly important roles in local areas and began demanding social reform and improvement if living conditions, with many hostile to the state
3 weaknesses of the local government reforms
Zemstva were only introduced in a limited number of provinces and were slow to get going, achieving little early on
They were dominated by nobles, with many exploiting the system to run affairs in their own interests
Peasants had little participation, deterred by the nobility, and resented paying the zemstvo tax which was proportionally higher on their land than on private estates
3 features of the judicial reforms
Judicial system was simplifies with fewer courts, with each province having one
Judges were paid good salaries and could not be removed from office, making them more independent of the state
System of Justices of the Peace was formed, magistrates elected by a district council who dealt with minor cases/disputes
3 consequences of the judicial reforms
Russians could get a fairer trial than before, with greater access to justice through JPs, with less corruption and more protection for the defendant as court proceedings were public
JPs were efficient and respected by workers and peasants for their reputation of protecting such individuals against local officials
They challenged Political authority of autocracy due to the independent course of authority through independent courts and judges, and new freedoms for lawyers evoked challenge to the government
2 weaknesses of judicial reforms
Separate courts for peasants - majority of the population - meant that they were excluded from the mainstream judicial system
Ecclesiastical and military courts remained outside the system, and government officials could not be tried in the system
3 features of the military reforms
Universal conscription was introduced: all social classes were liable for service at 21, with generally 1/4 chosen by lot to serve
Standard length of service reduced from 25 to 15 years, 6 active and 9 reserve. From 1862-1870, reserve increased from 210,000 to over 550,000
Officer training was improved, with military colleges established, admitting recruits who were non-nobles
When were the military reforms?
1861-81
3 consequences of military reforms
A smaller, more professional army emerged. However, despite the attempts to deteriorate class privilege, there was still a high proportion of nobles among officers, and upon Alexander III’s accession, officer training was restricted again to nobles Reforms were resented by nobles, who did not want to mix with lower classes, preferring dominating the officer corps under the old system Army still relied on peasant conscripts, who were uneducated, reducing effectiveness of their training
When were the education and censorship reforms
1863-64 (censorship persisted through the early 60s)
3 features of the education reforms
In first decade of Alexander’s reign, number of pupils doubled - from 1865-99, university student numbers grew from 4,000 to 16,000
Secondary schools were opened to all classes
Universities gained self-autonomy and more liberal professors were appointed
3 consequences of education reforms
A more literate population evoked a more radical one, with students becoming a more significant part of society
Students formed mutual-aid groups, reacting to poor teaching, strict regulation and the police, forming circles to discuss radical interests and the injustices of the tsarist system
Peasants gained literacy and took on new aspirations
3 points re censorship in the 1860s
Censorship was relaxed, with newspapers allowed to discuss government policy and were no longer required to submit prior censorship
However, the Ministry of the Interior could still withdraw publication if deemed dangerous to political authority
The generally relaxed atmosphere led to a huge growth in books published, accompanied with a rising literacy rate, with many criticising the government. A more informed population shaped
What was the population of Russia in 1859
70 million - 90% peasants
Define autocracy
System of government in which the ruler’s power is absolute
What was the Third Section and who formed it?
Formed by Nicholas I, it was the secret police aimed to overcome the prospect of revolution
When was the Crimean War fought and who was it between
1853-56, between Russia and Britain, France, Sardinia and the Ottoman Empire
2 impacts of Russia due to defeat in the Crimea
Highlighted in ability to deploy Human Resources effectively - no railway south of Moscow
Led to the military reforms of 1861-81
When was censorship relaxed? One aspect of this relaxation
1865, newspapers could report government policy and jury trials
Why was 1866 a turning point
In 1866, a former student called Karakazov narrowly missed the tsar with a pistol shot. This signified that Alexander reforms had led to increasing demand and radicalisation. Thus he decided to bring more reactionary policies
Who was made head of the Third Section after 1866
Count Peter Shuvalov
2 reactionary policies of Count Peter Shuvalov
Made use of military courts to try serious political cases (which were not open to reporting)
Closed down radical newspapers and tightened censorship
Who was made Minister of Education by Alexander II and what did he believe
Count Tolstoy, he believed that revolutionary thoughts originated in education
2 reforms of Count Tolstoy
His ministry took greater control of primary schools, reducing role of the 1864 school boards which were dominated by liberal zemstvo representatives, so he was now responsible for the appointment of teachers
Classical education was made an entry requirement for university - he disfavoured modern subjects
Main consequence of Tolstoy’s higher education reforms
Increased amount of students joining radical, liberal circles; gaining a revolutionary conscience
Who were the Populists and what did their movement do
The narodniks were a revolutionary group who formed in the 1870s, believing in agrarian socialism
Several thousand populists travelled ‘to the people’, attempting to spread their egalitarian beliefs to the peasants
