Alexander II, the Tsar Liberator, and autocracy and modernisation, 1855-94 Flashcards
What was the belief of Slavophiles?
Russia had its own distinct way of life which was superior of that of the West
When did Alexander II assume power?
Feb 1855
When was the Emancipation of the Serfs?
1861
3 reasons for the emancipation?
Moral case - “owning souls” was evil
Crimean war - army mainly composed of peasants
Risk of revolt - serious peasant revolts since 1840s
2 consequences of emancipation?
Peasants felt cheated as they still did not own the land they worked, yet had to pay for it over 49 years
Some enterprising peasants became kulaks; renting land from nobles and hiring labour
When were the local government and legal reforms?
1864
3 aspects of the local government reforms
The gov introduced a measure of self-government at provincial and district levels in the form of the zemstva (councils), elected every three years by nobles, peasants, town dwellers
These had general responsibilities for health, education, maintenance of roads and bridges and local economic affairs
The electoral system favoured the nobility, who formed 40% of district zemstva and over 70% of provincial councils, to compensate for the emancipation
3 consequences of local government reform
Zemstva brought improvements to their areas, building better roads, health facilities, schools, etc of lasting benefit
Nobles and others running the councils gained political experience, with many wanting an extension to a national level
Members of the third element gained increasingly important roles in local areas and began demanding social reform and improvement if living conditions, with many hostile to the state
3 weaknesses of the local government reforms
Zemstva were only introduced in a limited number of provinces and were slow to get going, achieving little early on
They were dominated by nobles, with many exploiting the system to run affairs in their own interests
Peasants had little participation, deterred by the nobility, and resented paying the zemstvo tax which was proportionally higher on their land than on private estates
3 features of the judicial reforms
Judicial system was simplifies with fewer courts, with each province having one
Judges were paid good salaries and could not be removed from office, making them more independent of the state
System of Justices of the Peace was formed, magistrates elected by a district council who dealt with minor cases/disputes
3 consequences of the judicial reforms
Russians could get a fairer trial than before, with greater access to justice through JPs, with less corruption and more protection for the defendant as court proceedings were public
JPs were efficient and respected by workers and peasants for their reputation of protecting such individuals against local officials
They challenged Political authority of autocracy due to the independent course of authority through independent courts and judges, and new freedoms for lawyers evoked challenge to the government
2 weaknesses of judicial reforms
Separate courts for peasants - majority of the population - meant that they were excluded from the mainstream judicial system
Ecclesiastical and military courts remained outside the system, and government officials could not be tried in the system
3 features of the military reforms
Universal conscription was introduced: all social classes were liable for service at 21, with generally 1/4 chosen by lot to serve
Standard length of service reduced from 25 to 15 years, 6 active and 9 reserve. From 1862-1870, reserve increased from 210,000 to over 550,000
Officer training was improved, with military colleges established, admitting recruits who were non-nobles
When were the military reforms?
1861-81
3 consequences of military reforms
A smaller, more professional army emerged. However, despite the attempts to deteriorate class privilege, there was still a high proportion of nobles among officers, and upon Alexander III’s accession, officer training was restricted again to nobles Reforms were resented by nobles, who did not want to mix with lower classes, preferring dominating the officer corps under the old system Army still relied on peasant conscripts, who were uneducated, reducing effectiveness of their training
When were the education and censorship reforms
1863-64 (censorship persisted through the early 60s)
3 features of the education reforms
In first decade of Alexander’s reign, number of pupils doubled - from 1865-99, university student numbers grew from 4,000 to 16,000
Secondary schools were opened to all classes
Universities gained self-autonomy and more liberal professors were appointed
3 consequences of education reforms
A more literate population evoked a more radical one, with students becoming a more significant part of society
Students formed mutual-aid groups, reacting to poor teaching, strict regulation and the police, forming circles to discuss radical interests and the injustices of the tsarist system
Peasants gained literacy and took on new aspirations
3 points re censorship in the 1860s
Censorship was relaxed, with newspapers allowed to discuss government policy and were no longer required to submit prior censorship
However, the Ministry of the Interior could still withdraw publication if deemed dangerous to political authority
The generally relaxed atmosphere led to a huge growth in books published, accompanied with a rising literacy rate, with many criticising the government. A more informed population shaped
What was the population of Russia in 1859
70 million - 90% peasants
Define autocracy
System of government in which the ruler’s power is absolute
What was the Third Section and who formed it?
Formed by Nicholas I, it was the secret police aimed to overcome the prospect of revolution
When was the Crimean War fought and who was it between
1853-56, between Russia and Britain, France, Sardinia and the Ottoman Empire
2 impacts of Russia due to defeat in the Crimea
Highlighted in ability to deploy Human Resources effectively - no railway south of Moscow
Led to the military reforms of 1861-81
When was censorship relaxed? One aspect of this relaxation
1865, newspapers could report government policy and jury trials
Why was 1866 a turning point
In 1866, a former student called Karakazov narrowly missed the tsar with a pistol shot. This signified that Alexander reforms had led to increasing demand and radicalisation. Thus he decided to bring more reactionary policies
Who was made head of the Third Section after 1866
Count Peter Shuvalov
2 reactionary policies of Count Peter Shuvalov
Made use of military courts to try serious political cases (which were not open to reporting)
Closed down radical newspapers and tightened censorship
Who was made Minister of Education by Alexander II and what did he believe
Count Tolstoy, he believed that revolutionary thoughts originated in education
2 reforms of Count Tolstoy
His ministry took greater control of primary schools, reducing role of the 1864 school boards which were dominated by liberal zemstvo representatives, so he was now responsible for the appointment of teachers
Classical education was made an entry requirement for university - he disfavoured modern subjects
Main consequence of Tolstoy’s higher education reforms
Increased amount of students joining radical, liberal circles; gaining a revolutionary conscience
Who were the Populists and what did their movement do
The narodniks were a revolutionary group who formed in the 1870s, believing in agrarian socialism
Several thousand populists travelled ‘to the people’, attempting to spread their egalitarian beliefs to the peasants
2 impacts of the Populist movement
Village elders and local authorities reported these narodniks - hundreds were imprisoned and exiled to Siberia following the ‘Trial of the 50’ and ‘Trial of the 193’ in 1877
Although many peasants regarded them with suspicions, some did openly share their views and thus anti-Tsarist views were spread
What 2 factions did the Populist movement split into and when
In 1879, they split into the Black partition and the People’s WIll
Who led the Black Partition
George Plekhanov and Vera Zasulich
How and when did Alexander II die
On 1 March 1881, travelling with an escort of Cossacks, two bombs were throw by members of The People’s Will, the second one being the end of the tsar an hour later
When was the Third Section abolished and who by?
In 1880, by Mikhail Loris-Melikov who was given job as head of the special commission with extraordinary measures to restore order
What were the three principles which provided justification for the tsarist regime?
Autocracy, Orthodoxy and Nationality
What year did Alexander III come to power
1881, following his father’s assassination
What did Alexander III claim his father’s reforms to be?
“Ill-advised, tantamount to revolution and pushing Russia on the wrong road”
2 points of Alexander III’s emergency measures of 1881
The Statue of State Security gave the government power to set up courts outside the judicial system and prohibit gatherings of more than 12 individuals
2 ways Alexander III restored order
In 1881 he established the Okhrana - decree in March 1881 allowed the police to survey any civilian
Establishment of Land Captains in place of JPs by Tolstoy to control rural areas
What was the ‘Zemstva act’ and when was it introduces
In 1890, it reduced the Zemtvo independence, centralising local gov control under the Ministry of the Interior
In 1892, what percentage of the capital’s population could vote
0.7%
2 of Alexander III’s legal counter-reforms
Crimes against the state could be heard in special courts without a jury
Judges mainly appointed from Ministry of Justice, losing their security of tenure
2 points of Alexander III’s repression following 1881
10,000 arrests, breaking TPW
A plot to murder tsar in 1887 by Alexander Ulyanov led to five hangings, including Lenin’s older brother
Who was Bunge and what did he introduce
He was a finance minister, who introduced measures throughout Alexander III’s reign to help peasants and workers living and working conditions
2 financial measures under Alexander III
1883-7, Bunge abolished poll tax and lowered redemption payments
In 1883 the Peasants’ Land Bank aided peasants buy land
Assess the financial measures under Alexander III
Had limited impact: lowered redemption payments were contradicted by increased indirect taxes and working conditions were improved only minorly
What was the policy of Russification
An ethnic strategy initiated under Alexander II to incorporate the whole Empire into Russian way of life
What occurred in 1863 in Poland?
Polish rebels attacked a pro-Russian government, resulting in a year of insurrection which was put down by the regime
How did Russification affect the Poles?
Polish was prohibited in schools and Russians replaced their Polish counterparts in government and industry
How many Jews in the Empire in 1880?
Approx 5 million
3 rules Alexander III imposed on the Jews
They could not own property in rural areas, even inside the Pale
Were not allowed to work in legal, medical or military professions
Denied the vote in municipal elections and the Zemstva
What was the Noble’s Land bank and when was it formed?
1885, it lent money to nobles at low interest to help pay off debt or rent land
When did Alexander III die and how
1 November 1894 of a kidney inflammation
Who was Sergei Witte?
Russia’s Finance Minister, 1892-1903
2 factors of Alexander II’s industrialisation process in the 1860s
In 1868 he invited John Hughes from Wales to Russia to demonstrate modern methods in iron and steel
Between 1866-81 no of miles of railways increased 3,000 to 13,270
What were the six factors of Witte’s industrial strategy
State-sponsored development of heavy industry
Foreign investment and expertise
Hight tariffs on foreign industrial goods
Strong rouble, gold standard
Raised taxation rates
Exports of grain
What year did Russia adopt the gold standard for its rouble
1897
What good produced a quarter of state revenue by 1910?
Vodka
3 points proving the industrial spurt in the 1890s
The production of iron and steel rose from 9 to 76 million poods a year between 1890-1900
Coal output tripled
By 1900 Moscow was the fastest growing city east of New York
2 points regarding the recession which began 1899
Output in basic industries, such as coal and iron, fell
In the Donbass region, by 1903, only 23 of 35 blast furnaces were functioning
2 criticisms of Witte’s policies
He neglected agriculture, which suffered under-investment
He prioritised development over welfare; high tariffs on foreign commodities was not sustainable
3 points about industrial development 1908-14
‘Industrial recovery’ largely due to gov’s rearmament programme, during and after Russo-Japanese war
By 1914 Russia was the world’s fifth largest industrial power
However, industry was not evenly spread across Russia; heavily distributed in Donbass and the cities
2 points how agriculture was growing after 1880
Grain production grew 1.1 million tons annually 1883-1914
Between 1877 and 1905, amount of land owned by peasants grew from 6 to 22 million hectares
Who was Peter Stolypin
Prime Minister, 1906
3 of Stolypin’s agrarian reforms, 1906-11
Allow peasants to leave the Mir and reduce its power
Redistribute some noble-held land
Help kulaks to buy land from less enterprising peasants
What did Stolypin call his reforms?
‘A gamble not on the drunken and feeble but on the sober and strong’
Why had agriculture been weak in central regions (2)
Increase in population, 50-79 million 1861-97, put pressure on distribution of land
Communes were conservative and used backward agricultural methods
Assess Stolypin’s reforms
Whilst some peasants seized the chance to leave the mir and set up independent households, others saw these ‘Stolypin separators’ as traitors
By 1914, peasants still used old-fashioned farming methods such as wooden ploughs and the three-field system which presents an ultimately failure in the modernisation of agriculture
By how much did the population of the Russian Empire grow from 1858 to 1914?
From 74 million in 1858 to 178 million in 1914
How many urban workers were there in the empire by 1900?
Around 3 million
3 points re working and living conditions in the period 1880-1914
Through 1890s labour employment was unstable, with the labour forces of factories regularly changing. However, for many it was difficult to get even unskilled employment. This led to the volatile economic nature of the cities
Living condition were poor, where it was not uncommon for workers to sleep in the beds of their colleagues when changing shifts. As later as 1911 Stolypin referenced the problems of smallpox, cholera and typhus in St Petersburg, where 1/3 of death was from disease
Traditional family structure was disrupted by modernisation, as wages were too low for migrating peasants to support families. Yet, toward to the end of the 19th century, this changed as workers became more established
What was the literacy rate in 1897
According to census in 1897, 57.8% of male urban workers could read (up to 3/4 in skilled labour)
3 points how the situation for workers changed (if at all) after 1905
Despite the revolution and booming industry after 1908, the government made no effort to improve working conditions in contrast to Western Europe
In 1912, limited insurance was introduced for sickness and workplace accidents, yet covered only a minority of the workforce
People still worked for 1/3 less pay than average western worker, with longer hours, and housing condition deteriorated from the dramatic increase in the workforce from 1910-14
3 points re changes in the countryside in the period 1880-1914
In areas outside of the central agricultural region, especially nearer cities, peasants enjoyed higher living standards, often with increased disposable incomes
The kulaks were an emerging force in the countryside, employing labour and renting land
Modernisation extended to the countryside, with factories being built and railways moving closer, and over half the children of age enrolled in primary schools by 1911
2 points re peasant migration
By the turn of the century, estimates put the number of migrant workers at 9 million
These migrants could form volatile groups in the unfamiliar urban environment, yet nonetheless peasants saw city jobs as an upgrade from rural life
3 points re changes for nobles through 1880-1914
An increasing number sold their land after having lost their serfs and stature - from 1861 to 1905 their land owned fell from 80% to 40%, moving to the cities in increasing numbers
However, it was not all a decline, as younger nobles developed their estates with modern methods and many made incomes from the military and civil service - in 1897, 1,000 of 1,400 highest ranking civil servants were nobles
Nobles still played an influential role in local affairs, dominating the zemstva
3 points regarding professionals in the period 1880-1914
Estimated around 1 million professionals by 1914 (and around 2 million members of middle classes altogether)
In 1892, the first All-Russian Teachers’ Congress met, as professional associations were used to exchange ideas
Many worked for the zemstva, forming the ‘third element’ and often challenging the regime, viewing themselves as more representative of the nation
2 points re women in society from 1880-1914
Middle class women made progress, mainly after 1900 In 1905 co-education emerged, as women’s organisation were formed throughout the empire
