AL - L6 Migration Theory

Question 1

What is the equation for population change?

Answer 1

P = (B-D) +/- M

P = population
B = births
D = deaths
M = migration

Question 2

Why do countries vary in their attraction for international (economic migrants)?

Answer 2

Proximity or ease of travel

more information sources are available e.g., from family/community
members already there and these people could also provide support following the migration

government policies encourage/discourage economic migration and reduce/increase political barriers

they are perceived as welcoming or unwelcoming

they are HICs and it is perceived that job opportunities and pay rates are better there.

Question 3

Why do people move?

Answer 3

Often because of a combination of PUSH and PULL factors.

Migrants must also consider obstacles and barriers to migration when determining their direction of movement.

Question 4

A migrant will always have better knowledge of push factors rather than pull factors. True or false?

Answer 4

True - push factors are lived and experienced by migrants every day as they are related to a migrant’s source of origin.

Pull factors are largely determined through hearsay, the media, and so on…

Question 5

How can we classify migration?

Answer 5

Voluntary economic migration
Involuntary / forced migration
Stepped migration
Circular migration
Intra-urban migration
Inter-urban (urban-urban) migration
International migration
Internal migration

Question 6

Define the term international economic migration.

Answer 6

This is the movement of people for more than a year (1) to another country/across an international border (1) to seek employment/better employment/higher income (1). [3]

Question 7

Define stepped migration.

Answer 7

Stepped migration occurs in a sequence of stages. These ‘steps’ occur within the settlement hierarchy (usually upwards, moving from lower order to higher order settlements). [3]

Question 8

Define what is meant by the term refugee.

Answer 8

A person who is outside his/her home country (1)owing to a well-founded fear of persecution (1) for reasons of race, religion, nationality or political opinion, and is unable to return (1). [3]

Question 9

Define what is meant by international migration.

Answer 9

The movement of population (1) from one country to another / across international boundaries (1) for a period of more than a year (1). [3]

Question 10

Define what is meant by forced (involuntary) migration.

Answer 10

The movement of population/people for a period of 1 year or more forced (involuntary) impelled or not by choice – sometimes the whole population has to move. [3]

Question 11

Define what is meant by internal migration.

Answer 11

Population movement (1) inside a country/within national borders (1) of one year’s duration or more (1). [3]

Question 12

Define what is meant by intra-urban migration.

Answer 12

Permanent (more than 1 year) movement of people (1) within an urban area (1), not commuting.

Question 13

Define what is meant by urban-urban migration.

Answer 13

Movement from one town or city (urban area) to another town or city 1 (candidates should unpack urban rather than simply reuse it) for one year or more 1 example (1). [3]

Question 14

Define what is meant by rural-urban migration.

Answer 14

The movement of people (0) for a period of one year or more (1) from rural settlements or rural areas (farms, hamlets, villages) (1) to urban settlements or urban areas (towns and cities) (1). [3]

Question 15

Define what is meant by the term net migration.

Answer 15

The balance between people moving into a region or country (1) and the people moving out of that region or country (1) combined with natural population change when the total population change of a region or country is calculated (1). [3]

Question 16

Describe the different ways of classifying migrants (individuals not migration).

Answer 16

On cause/reason/motivation: employment, education, forced vs voluntary
On distance: international vs internal
On direction: rural to urban, intra-urban etc.
On duration: permanent vs circular
On nature: illegal vs illegal / refugees
On demographic characteristics: age / biological sex
On social factors: level of education / family status etc.

Question 17

The decision to migrate is made in the source area. People’s decision to migrate is rooted in perception and is based on three things. What is it based on?

Answer 17

Push factors
Pull factors
Obstacles and barries

Question 18

Outline as many push factors as you can.
Categorise them in to SPEEC.

Answer 18

Low wages​

Lack of job opportunities, only unskilled jobs available​

Lack of access to amenities such as schools and hospitals​

Poor quality of life, e.g., Poor housing​

Conflict, war and/or political oppression​

Persecution of minority groups within society​

Natural hazards, e.g., Volcano or drought ​

AVOID MIRRORING PUSH AND PULL FACTORS

Question 19

Outline as many pull factors as you can.
Categorise them in to SPEEC.

Answer 19

High wages, improved standard of living​

More job opportunities, better jobs available​

Better amenities and services​

Improved quality of life, e.g. The prospect of better housing​

Freedom from oppression​

Tolerance of other people’s views, opinions and attitudes​

Better environment, no natural hazards​

AVOID MIRRORING PUSH AND PULL FACTORS

Question 20

Constraints/obstacles are limiting factors to migration that can be overcome
Barriers more challenging to overcome and more likely to change a migrant’s destination.

Outline 5 or more constraints/obstacles to migration.

Answer 20

Cost (travel/documents etc.)​
Distance​
Language ​
Age​
Health​
Hostility of other groups​
Attitude to risk

Question 21

Constraints/obstacles are limiting factors to migration that can be overcome
Barriers more challenging to overcome and more likely to change a migrant’s destination.

Outline 5 or more barriers to migration.

Answer 21

Travel bans (e.g., Trump’s travel ban)​
Caps on immigration numbers ​
Immigration policies (points-based skills systems/quotas)​
Physical barriers: oceans/mountains/deserts​
War

Question 22

What impact can constraints/obstacles/barriers have on a migrant?

Answer 22

They can change a migrant’s path or ultimate desired destination​
They can change how a migrant moves

Question 23

Constrains/obstacles/barriers create FRICTION. What is the relationship between FRICTION and the volume of migrants moving?

Answer 23

The greater the FRICTION – the FEWER the number of people that migrate​ (this is effectively distance decay.

Question 24

Distinguish between the constraints/obstacles/barriers for internal migrants and international migrants.

Answer 24

For internal migrants, the main constraints are costs, distance, and the dangers of the journey ​

International migrants must also consider the immigration laws of the country they are moving to, and possibly the restrictions on emigration imposed by their own country

Question 25

How can immigration law affect migration?

Answer 25

During the 19th century, the government of the USA considered the USA to be underpopulated and they encouraged immigration, especially from Europe​

Unrestricted migration from Europe solved the problem of potential overpopulation in Europe and provided workers for the USA​

More recently, population growth in LICs and MICs has led to increased migration to HICs such as the USA and richer countries of the EU​

Initially, there were only minor restrictions on movement – the UK encouraged migration from the West Indies after 1945 to boost economic growth by providing a pool of cheap labour prepared to do the unskilled jobs which the growing economy needed

HOWEVER, AS THE FLOW OF POOR MIGRANTS HAS INCREASED, MOST COUNTRIES HAVE IMPOSED GREATER AND GREATER RESTRICTIONS

Question 26

How can physical barriers limit migration?

Answer 26

Walls/deserts/oceans etc. all count as physical barriers
They are physically demanding to cross, so fewer people attempt it

During the Cold War​, communist regimes in Eastern Europe imposed restrictions on emigration. ​The Berlin Wall was constructed in 1961 to stop the huge flows of people escaping East Germany to live in the West.

Question 27

Give an example of a political constraint to migration.

Answer 27

China​ Hukou system

The system of hukou was enforced until recently. It has been relaxed slightly.

This was a population register that defended an individual as either a rural or urban dweller.​

Permission was required of a person wanted to change their status and permission was often denied for rural to urban migrants.​

Only if they had a job and house in an urban area was permission granted.​

This is partially how the Chinese avoided shanty town development.

Question 28

How can governments restrict emigration? Explain using an example.

Answer 28

N. Korea imposes strict migration controls on the entries and exits of its citizens and foreigners.​

Despite signing the International Covenant on Civil and Political rights in 1981, N. Korea does not uphold Article 12(2), which states “Everyone shall be free to leave any country including his own.”​

N. Korea regards unauthorized departure as an act of treason and people are detained in political penal-labour colonies for between 2 and 7 years.

Question 29

Suggest factors that influence a person’s decision whether or not to migrate.

EXAM TIP: any question that says push or pull only should deal with push and/or pull only. Any question that says decision making should deal with push and pull and constraints, obstacles, and barriers.

Answer 29

All of the below can affect a migrant’s decision to migrate. Give examples when answering.

push factors and pull factors + constraints, obstacles and barriers;
personal factors that influence how a person perceives the attributes of the place of origin and destination ​age, gender, marital status, socio-economic group, level of education; ​character – attitude to risk, desire for change, susceptibility to pressure from others.

Question 30

Why might a migrant choose to move in steps?

Answer 30

It can minimise the risk to the migrant of being exploited or finding themselves in a position where they are unable to support themselves

Smaller ‘steps’ are easier to achieve.

It allows the migrant to gain confidence – saving up money for the next ‘step’

The migrant is able to take some time to collect information about the next potential ‘step’ rather than jumping directly to a larger settlement where opportunities may be limited

A migrant may be gain a promotion which involves a company moving them to a larger settlement for one year or more

Question 31

How can age influence migration?

Answer 31

Generally the case that international migrants are younger adults, e.g. can be over 80% under 45 ; older adults are less likely to migrate e.g. only 4% over 60; around 20% can be under 16; age/stage of life cycle therefore an important influence.​

Young adults more migratory (seeking work, fewer ties or family breadwinner), children migrate with parents, more complex family ties with age and elderly and retired family members are least migratory.

Question 32

How can biological sex influence migration?

Answer 32

Generally believed that more international migrants are males (migration theory – men more migratory over longer distances, women more migratory over shorter distances) ​

More males from some LICs. Typically, males are better educated than females in LICs where they can be seen as economically valuable and thus are likely to be more mobile and it is mainly men who seek work outside the home – females may not be allowed to travel alone or they may not wish to/find it difficult to travel with young children​

Could be argued that men are greater risk takers, particularly young unmarried men. ​

However, not always the case that most international economic migrants are men – there is female migration often seen with regard to more gendered jobs e.g. in caring professions in some socio-cultural settings; men may migrate first then be joined by their partners and children later​

Biological sex is an important influence on the likelihood to migrate – could be argued that it is becoming less so.

in 2020-21, 48% of international migrants were female and 52% were male

Question 33

Describe the relationship between volume and distance as relating to the migration process?

Answer 33

As distance of travel increases, volume of migration decreases.

Question 34

Describe the effect distance has on migration.

Answer 34

Distance is a significant obstacle to movement​

Most migration is over short distances – especially refugee flows where people move quickly to avoid persecution ​

Volume of movement is always greater internally where the obstacles and barriers to movement are less ​

As distance increases, so does the FRICTION of movement – essentially, the complications to movement – therefore most people don’t migrate internationally

Question 35

Outline why some people choose to migrate internally?

Answer 35

Fewer obstacles and barriers
Better knowledge of the receiving area
Core areas may offer better job opportunities / healthcare / education / better quality of life
Peripheral areas may be in decline
Closer to family - may be moving internally through chain and/or stepped migration
Less risk
Stage in the lifecycle - young families suburbanise
Cost is lower

Question 36

Outline the impacts of migration on rural areas

Answer 36

If the male migrates, the female becomes head of the household and this gives her increased social status in the community

This is countered by the extra work that the female has to do (labouring on the land) in addition to the traditional work that she still has to do in the home. If the children do some of the farm work or the household chores, they may miss out on education, reducing their future prospects.

Remittances can be used to invest in new farming techniques, changing the farm from subsistence to commercial. This will only work if all members of the family are involved, with some of the males staying in the village to work the land. This is why some families adopt the practice of relay migration where family members take it in turns to migrate to the city, often when they are young adults and before they marry.

If the countryside is regularly affected by natural hazards such as drought, whole families may decide to move. They may sell or simply abandon their land as they have decided that it can no longer support them. This can be beneficial in that marginal land is no longer being overused and environmental problems such as soil erosion may be reduced.​

In the short term, movement of people from villages can reduce the standard of living and the quality of life of the people remaining in the villages but in the long term, reduced population pressure, the economic stimulus of the remittances and the change from subsistence to commercial agriculture results in a better standard of living for many of the remaining rural populations. ​

Question 37

Outline the impacts of internal migration on cities.

Answer 37

New arrivals in the city increase pressure on already limited job opportunities, housing and services

Shortage of jobs leads to a large informal economy

Shortage of housing means people have to live in very poor conditions

Crime and poverty often increase in these conditions

City councils may try to help but new arrivals often pay no taxes, so money for improvements is in short supply

Rural to urban migration leads to the concentration of services and facilities, such as education, health and technology in urban centres, which disadvantages rural communities

Question 38

Suggest reasons why the number of refugees in the world is increasing.

Answer 38

Increasing number of refugees due to circumstances such as:
larger concentrations of people in areas prone to natural disasters;
increased environmental degradation and food insecurity in some areas;
increasing numbers involved in political unrest, rebellion or war;
ethnic cleansing;
improved mobility enabling people to flee their own country;

Question 39

Explain the possible effects of emigration on population growth rates.

Answer 39

Emigration is age-specific in that young adults and the economically active/working age/ independent groups more generally, are more likely to
emigrate (leave the country) than older or younger, dependent, age groups.

The effect of this is to remove some of the
reproductive cohort, with the direct effect of a fall in population growth rates.

This may be enhanced if the migrant stream is imbalanced in terms of either gender. This also works to reduce population growth rates, for example as families are split, with one parent out of the country, or by delaying marriages.

Other points to credit may, however, include:
* a longer term reducing effect in the next generation (from population momentum)
* the influence of return migration, if it occurs
* a compensatory upswing in birth rates to ‘replace’ emigrants

Question 40

Why do some countries receive more refugees than others?

Answer 40

proximity to and / or good transport links with a country suffering war / conflict or natural disasters – neighbouring countries in particular may receive large numbers of refugees;
a lack of border controls;
historical ties with the source country;
being welcoming to refugees (or perceived to be);
HICs– so perception of greater opportunities;
peaceful – so attractive to refugees from war zones.

Question 41

What impacts might the loss of male migrants have on a source area?

Answer 41

unbalanced age / sex structure and consequences for birth rate and death rate;
division of families; shortage of males for marriage;
brain and brawn drain; loss of most dynamic and enterprising workers; shortage of workers in certain occupations;
reduced unemployment;
remittances and donations to community projects may increase leading to a positive multiplier effect;
dependency / reduced self-reliance;
lower pressure on public services; less pressure on resources.

Question 42

Suggest reasons why large numbers of refugees migrate from some countries.

Answer 42

Refugees are from countries where there is persecution of/lack of freedom for people due to their religious or political beliefs;
there are long, violent conflicts; there is forced expulsion of a minority group (ethnic cleansing);
there are natural disasters and/or environmental degradation;
there is food/economic insecurity.
etc.

Question 43

With the help of examples, explain different types of internal migration.

Answer 43

Forced v voluntary (as a result of a natural disaster e.g., flooding)
Rural-urban and urban-rural (suburbanisation/counterurbanisation…)
Transmigration - mass migrations led by governments (Dutch colonial policy in Indonesia, introduced by the government at the time to ease overpopulation in the capital of Java)
Education - students move to access universities in other cities/states in their country of origin

Question 44

What benefits and problems might a large migrant population have for a country.

Answer 44

Possible benefits:
– labour force
– increased output from ‘young’ labour force
– cultural benefits: food, music
– tax revenue

Possible problems:
– perceived loss of jobs to foreign labour
– pressures on schools/health service
– outflow of currency from migrants to family back home
– racial tensions

Question 45

Suggest why HICs encourage immigration.

Answer 45

Generally, ‘replacement migration’ can fill the gaps left by declining populations in all employment areas
Family ties
The migrants contribute to the economy, through tax etc.
May bring new skills
Labour shortages, particularly the ‘dirty and difficult’ jobs can be filled by migrants
Lifestyle in MEDCs sustains many service jobs, such as child care, cleaning etc.
Migrants traditionally occupy seasonal jobs, such as in farming, tourism, etc. which suffer from seasonal shortages
Other skilled employment areas may also be filled by migrants, nursing, care workers, doctors, etc

Question 46

Why are pull factors in internal migration perceived rather than real?

Answer 46

• ‘streets paved with gold’ expectations – hopes and dreams
• availability of information – distortion by the media or even governments
• distance so information and feedback gets distorted
• contacts at destination may exaggerate
• time lag in information so it is out of date
• push factors are so great that they migrants may not care

Question 47

Outline the benefits and challenges that arise from migration in both source and host countries.

Answer 47

Source countries:

Positives include:
remittances, financial contributions to community projects, positive multiplier, reduction in unemployment, reduced pressure on services, new/advanced skills on return

Challenges include:
disadvantages could include brain drain, brawn drain, loss of most enterprising and dynamic workforce, dependency.

Receiving countries:–
benefits include:
filling of job vacancies, workers to do the unattractive and low paid jobs that nationals don’t want, gain of skilled and innovative workers, increased tax revenue, increased market for goods and services;

Challenges include:
surplus labour, depression of wage rates, perception that jobs being taken from locals, strain on welfare services

Question 48

Briefly explain why urban-rural migration occurs in LICs.

Answer 48

Common perception is that migration in LICs is all rural-urban. Urban-rural migration occurs due to:
- return to village of aging inhabitants (retirement)
- difficulty of surviving in squatter settlement with no family support
- political/social unrest
- some wealthy residents buy farms to escape from cities – possibly to avoid crime

Question 49

Suggest how to reduce the rate or rural-urban migration.

Answer 49

Increase opportunities in rural areas,
growth of tourism,
agricultural development.

Dis-incentivise migrating to urban areas, e.g. need for permits (China),
media reports of hardships experienced by migrants

Question 50

Give two reasons for intra-urban migration.

Answer 50

Could be for economic, social, and/or political pushes and pulls
May also be related to the stage in the life cycle
May also be related to changing levels of affluence and mobility

Question 51

Suggest two types of intra-urban migrants.

Answer 51

Most common types of intra-urban migration may be suburbanisation, people desire more space, etc, they begin to move out of central areas to the edges of the urban space, often in steps, according to stage in the life cycle.

There may be a reverse movement of young and more mobile populations, moving from the suburbs to the centre, seeking lifestyle, proximity to work, etc. possibly partly driven by redevelopment/regeneration projects e.g., Nine Elms / London Docklands.

There may be other examples of resettlement schemes within an urban area, observable in both LICs and HICs as governments may tackle the problem poor housing with new housing areas, sometimes on the fringe of the city.

Question 52

How can governments affect immigration?

Answer 52

Encourage of discourage through:

Control measures - visas / bans / points-based systems etc.

Encourage - help with cost of passage (£10 Poms) / Open door immigration policies etc.

Question 53

Describe and explain possible impacts of immigration on receiving countries.

Answer 53

Positive impacts could be:

new skills or filling a skills shortage - happens in the UK with immigration granted more readily to those with skills in shortage areas e.g., Nurses / Truck drivers. Beneficial as contributes to economy of receiving country, allowing them to re-invest in improving the country.

cultural benefits (broaden experience of other cultures and introduces new foods, languages etc into the receiving country, enriching society)

Workers (typically young and economically active take difficult and dangerous jobs not desired by others / can also help buoy the BR if the country is facing an ageing population)

generating income tax etc.

Negative impacts could be resentment from locals (particularly during times of recession when migrants are seen to take jobs residents may otherwise have taken)/

possible strain on services (particularly in terms of education - school places in inner city areas are particularly squeezed leading to larger class sizes

Cultural divide (some feel migration can lead to the loss of a country’s culture, and the erosion of its traditions, which can lead to conflict)

Question 54

How do migrants receive information about possible destinations?

Answer 54

government agencies or advertising
media reports
tourism/holiday taking
social networks, e.g. family members, friends
returning migrants
hearsay/rumour

Question 55

Explain why voluntary migration is increasing.

Answer 55

Increased mobility – advances in transport and reduced
costs of transport;
modern media
providing increased knowledge of wide socio-economic disparities between countries and increased knowledge of potential destinations;
globalisation and the availability of work
opportunities in other countries / strong pull factors;
population growth and increasing concentrations of people in poverty stricken areas / strong push factors.

Question 56

Why might remittances be significant for a migrant’s family left at home?

Answer 56

– the migrant is the breadwinner/head of the family (typically adult male)

– migration may be a brain or brawn drain, of the highest potential earner so receiving remittances can mitigate this loss

– savings may have been used up/debt incurred in paying for the migration

– remittance may be hard currency, so can achieve a lot

– money may be used to foster chain migration, e.g. wife and children

– money may simply pay for survival

– money may improve life, e.g. education, housing, diet, healthcare

Question 57

Contrast the features of urban-rural migration with the features of
rural-urban migration in HICs.

Answer 57

Contrasts could include:

• direction of migration/movement – urban-rural is more diverse than
  rural-urban
• type of migrant – urban-rural tend to be older migrants and rural-urban younger often single
• volume – HICs tend to have greater urban–rural compared to rural-urban
• duration – often rural-urban is shorter term than urban–rural
• differences in push/pull factors e.g. employment fuels rural-urban and
  desire for more pleasant environment fuels urban–rural

Question 58

Explain the impact of rural-urban migration on population structures of
LICs/MICs for both source and receiving/destination areas.

Answer 58

Rural-urban migration tends to involve single, educated, males initially so:

• source areas lose young working age males so structures tend to be
  ageing with fewer births and more females
• destination areas gain younger working age males so structures have
  low dependency rates and tend to be youthful but often with low birth
  rates
• with time these initial groups may move their families into destination
  areas which could increase the young dependency ratio.

Answers may be supported with age/sex structure diagrams (pyramids).

Question 59

Explain the impact of rural-urban migration on population structures of
LICs/MICs for both source and receiving/destination areas.

Answer 59

Rural-urban migration tends to involve single, educated, males initially so:

• source areas lose young working age males so structures tend to be
  ageing with fewer births and more females
• destination areas gain younger working age males so structures have
  low dependency rates and tend to be youthful but often with low birth
  rates
• with time these initial groups may move their families into destination
  areas which could increase the young dependency ratio.

Answers may be supported with age/sex structure diagrams (pyramids).

Question 60

Contrast the features of voluntary and forced (involuntary) international migration movements.

Answer 60

Differences could include:
* direction
* type of migrant – voluntary tend to be older migrants and younger often
single, whilst forced is often all ages
* volume – forced is often greater in number
* duration – often forced is shorter term than voluntary
* differences in push/pull factors e.g. employment and desire for more
pleasant environment pulls voluntary, whilst forced is a push factor

Question 61

Describe the impacts of urban-rural migration on rural areas.

Answer 61

• changing population structure (varying according to the characteristics of the
  migrant population)
• greater numbers impacting on services
• rising house prices/land values
• loss of green space/agricultural land
• renovation of buildings/change of use
• increased traffic and pollution
• other

Question 62

Compare the process of chain migration with the process of stepped
migration.

Answer 62

Chain migration:

Chain migration involves a movement to places where: people they know already live;
there may be cultural links;
each new immigrant makes it more likely for people they know in their place of origin to follow;
assistance is given by previous migrants in the form of information, money,
accommodation, employment, etc.;
the process may be age or gender
selective;
information may be provided in the area of origin via advertisements, etc.

Stepped migration

Stepped migration is a series of movements: breaking down a longer
distance movement into shorter distances or stages;
the migrant spends time in a place to gain information, experience and or the capital to make the next step;
normally movement is up the urban hierarchy, etc.

Question 63

Why does the rate of rural-urban migration vary with age of the migrant in LICs/MICs?

Answer 63

• Young keen to move into urban areas for: education, employment,
  entertainment + urban area is seen as more dynamic.
• Middle aged – may move out of rural area as want better opportunities
  for their children or to get promotion, etc.
• Old – unlikely to leave rural area for urban as inert, high cost of moving,
  like rural environment, friends in area. Many elderly retire to their village
  roots in LICs. Old move to urban for health reasons – more care/support.

Question 64

Why is stepped migration less likely to occur in international migration?

Answer 64

• There are few opportunities to move from country to country
• There are more barriers and constraints in international migration
• More difficult to absorb culture or gain information prior to the move
• The idea of moving up a hierarchy of countries would be difficult
• Would involve extra costs

Question 65

Why does distance influence refugee flows?

Answer 65

• Distance decay idea – greater distances mean greater costs in time / money / effort.
• Knowledge and understanding of destination become more vague with distance.
• Cultural norms alter with greater distance from origin.
• Greater number of barriers and constraints with increasing distance.

Question 66

Explain the advantages of chain migration.

Answer 66

Advantages could be: ​

The second or later waves gain information, get help with transport and/or have places to stay and work from earlier wave(s) of migrants​

Advantages could be for the migrants from different waves, the source region or the receiving/destination area and could be social, economic, environmental or political in nature (e.g., a cheaper labour pool more likely to undertake lower-paid work / less environmental pressure or pressure on food systems in the source area etc.)