AIT103 - Ataturk's Principles & History of Turkish Revolution - PART A Flashcards
1
Q
When was the origins & expansion of the Ottoman State took place?
A
At c.1300 - 1402
2
Q
How big was the Ottoman Empire?
A
It grew from a Turkish stronghold of Anatolia to North Vienna (Austria), as far as the East Persian Gulf, West of Algeria & South of Yemen.
3
Q
Who were the Ottomans?
A
They were the leaders of Turkish warriors for the faith of Islam, who fought against the Byzantine state.
4
Q
What was the Arabic Title of the Ottomans?
A
ghazi = meaning a Raider
5
Q
Who were the founders of the Ottoman Dynasty?
A
The ancestors of Osman 1
6
Q
Which tribe were the ancestors of Osman 1?
A
The Kayi tribe
7
Q
Who did the ancestors of Osman 1 entered Anatolia with?
A
The Turkmen Oguz nomads.
8
Q
What did the Nomads establish themselves as?
A
Seljuq dynasty in Iran & Mesopotamia in the mid-11 century.
9
Q
When did the battle of Manzikert took place?
A
In 1071
10
Q
Before the Seljuq dynasty was established by the nomads, were did they come from?
A
Central Asia
11
Q
Who did the Ghazis (Raiders) fought with who tried invading Anatolia?
A
The Byzantines & the Monguls
12
Q
When was the final defeat of the Mongols by the Seljuq?
A
In 1293
13
Q
Who was the first leader of the Ottomans to rule over the Byzantines?
A
Osman
14
Q
Who was the successor of Osman?
A
It was Orhan (Who ruled 1324 - 60)
15
Q
Who succeeded Orhan?
A
Murad I (1360 - 89)
16
Q
Which city was captured by Murad I & made Capital in 1369?
A
The city of Adrianople (Modern Edirne)
17
Q
Who succeed Murad I in the Ottoman expansion?
A
Sultan Bayezid I (1389 - 1402)
18
Q
When was the Reign of the Interregnum?
A
1402 to 1413
19
Q
How was the Reign of the Interregnum ended?
A
Celebi Mehmet defeats his brothers.
20
Q
Who succeeded Celebi Mehmet?
A
Murad II
21
Q
How did the Ottomans’ borders expand in the Balkans?
A
As far as Izmir & Serbia.
22
Q
When was the victory of the second battle of Kosovo?
A
In 1448
23
Q
When did Mehmet II come to power?
A
In 1451
24
Q
What were Mehmet II’s main goals as he entered power in 1451?
A
He planned to conquer Constantinople.
25
What title was Mehmet II given when he conquered Constantinople?
Fatih (Meaning Conqueror).
26
Who was Fatih Sultan Mehmet II grandson?
Sultan Selim I (The Grim)
27
What other victories followed the Battle of Caldiran?
- Mercidabik (1516)
- Ridanieh (1517)
28
WHo was Sultan Selim I son?
Süleyman I Kanuni.
29
What was Suleyman I Kanuni's popular name?
He was also known as the Lawgiver.
30
Which year did Suleyman unsuccessful failed to besiege Vienna?
In 1529
31
What was one of the toughest state for the Ottomans to deal with in the eastern front?
The Iranian Safevids.
32
When was Suleyman I. Kanuni alive?
From 1522 to 1566.
33
Who was Suleyman I. Kanuni's son?
Selim II
34
When did Selim II conquered Cyprus?
In 1571
35
Which battle was the Ottoman fleet defeated at?
The battle of Lepanto
36
What were the Ottomans named after?
The Ottomans were named after the name of their founder, OSMAN.
37
What was the capital of the Eastern Roman empire (Byzantine Empire)
Constantinople
38
In 1516 - 1517, who did Sultan Selim I defeat?
Sultan Mamluk of Egypt & Syria.
39
Sulyeman failed to besiege VIENA, which by then was the capital of?
The Austrian Habsburg empire.
40
Who did the Ottomans team up with in creating enemity against the Austrians?
The French
41
When did the Ottomans capture TUNISIA?
In 1574
42
When was the second Ottoman Siege to Viena?
In 1683, under Grand Vizier Kara Mustapha Pasha.
43
What did the second Siege of Vienna by the Ottoman bring?
Proveoked major rescue operations of most of European Christian states.
44
What was the International coalition of 1699 about?
It was about to recapture most of historic Hungary from the Ottomans. (The Karlowitz treaty). The treaty included the Habsburg empire, Poland, Lithuania, Venice, and Papacy.
45
How long did the Ottoman empire survive?
600 years
46
Who did the Ottomans overthrow in 1453, so as to initiate the establishment of their Empire?
They overthrew the frontier of the Byzantium
47
How many ethnic groups did the Ottomans have?
75 Ethnic groups., and also religion; christians, muslims & jews.
48
What were millets in the Ottoman leadership?
The Millets were small religious communities within the Ottoman States that would oversee the internal religious affairs of each religion.
49
Why did Ottoman start to collapse in the later years?
They lacked confidence in their army & also they suffered economically as the couldn't enter the world market as it was ruled by Europe.
50
What problems were within the Ottoman as it progressed & lastly collapsed?
Corruption, financial weaknesses & military defeat.
51
What made the Ottomans flourish at first?
The solid leadership.
52
When did Osman rule the Ottomans?
From 1299 to 1324
53
What did the Seljuk Sultan recognize Osman as?
As a BEY (a person with authoritative politcal abilities)
54
What empires did the Ottomans succeed?
The Byzantine & the Seljukian empires.
55
What did Ottomans inherit from both the Byzantiums & the Seljuks?
From Byzantium - The Ottomans inherited the Christian territories.
From the Seljukians - The Ottomans inherited the Islamic territories.
56
How was the Ottomans protection to the religions they ruled?
They protected the Muslims.
They protected the Orthodox Christians
They conquested against catholic nations
57
Who said, "Harmony among men living in the society is achieved by statecraft"
Tursun Beg, Ottoman's statesman & historian of the late 15th century.
58
What other things made the Ottomans thrive?
The free willing spirit of the Gazis, the efforts of the group leaders to adopt the Islamic traditions made the Ottoman's survive.
59
What did Orhan, Osman successor do in 1326?
He invaded the city of Brusa, a Byzantine state.
60
What did Brusa become after capturing by Orhan?
It became the first effective capital city of the Ottoman empire.
61
When did the Turk Ottomans crossed to Europe?
In 1345 after the invitation from John V Paleologus., to provide military aid to fight against an usurper.
62
What did the Ottomans do after the Invitation of John V?
They consolidated their army a lot. And they had won over Balkan against the Southern Slavs, in June 1389 at The battle of Kosovo.
63
What were Pope Urban V fears?
That Ottomans are so powerful, in 1366 he declared a crusade, saying they have become wild beasts.
64
What was the Ottoman's main technique that helped them during conquering & Strengthening their power?
Taking Christian & converting them to Muslims & giving them titles as Bodyguards.
65
When did the Conquest of Constantinople take place?
29 May 1453
66
After conquering Constantinople, what was it renamed to?
Istanbul
67
When was Cyprus captured by the Ottomans?
In 1570
68
What did Sultan Suleyman capture in 1520?
He captured one of the most important fortress cities, Belgrade, and continued to others like Budapest in Hungary.
69
When did Murad IV serve as a ruler?
Between 1623 to 1640
70
What can some examples of problems that faced the Ottoman Empire & possibly led to its collapse?
- Weakening of the Military system
- The decline of strong leaders (Especially after Sultan Suleyman's death)
- The interference with the then-developing European economy
71
What were the names of contracts that the later Sultans signed with European leaders as the Ottoman Empire was slowly dying?
Capitulations
72
When & where was the first Capitulation to the Ottomans?
In France, 1536
73
What was the treaty of Karlowitz & when was it?
It was in 1699. It required the Ottomans to give up Hungary to the Hapsburgs.
74
When was the Ottoman-Russian's war?
In 1768
75
When did Selim III become Sultan of the Ottomans?
In between 1789 to 1807.
76
What did Salim III propose as a way to recover the falling Ottoman Empire?
The Naval reform
77
What did Salim III do with the West that raised concerns?
- He established permanent Ottoman embassies in European capitals
- Rebuilt the Janissaries barracks & raised their Salaries
78
What did the Ulama did to Salim III?
They rejected Salim III's policies of opening up with the Europeans.
79
What did the rebellious Janissaries do to Salim III?
They overthrew him out of power, as they were fed up with his policies of opening up more to the Europeans.
80
Who succeeded Salim III?
Mustapha IV
81
What was the Capital city of the Ottoman?
Constantinople
82
Who was Napoleon Bonaparte?
A commander who landed an invasion force in Egypt in 1798, effectively defeating the Ottomans.
83
What initiated Ottoman modernization?
The destruction of the Imperial army, the Janissaries in 1826.
84
What did Sultan Mahmud II do to start to modernize Ottoman Empire?
He eliminated all the rivalries which were present in the regions of the empire by that time.
85
What else did Sultan Mahmud II do as part of the reforms?
- He restricted the power of the religious class
- he introduced the French regimental system in the military
- He started military schools
86
What were the reforms which happened at the Title of Tanzimat?
- Greater westernization (e.g. clothing, newspaper, schooling & military change)
- A group called the "New Ottomans" arose who inspired by the justice system
87
What was the other name for the New Ottomans?
The Adalet
88
What did the New Ottomans introduce?
- They promoted the idea of Fatherland (Vatan)
- They introduced the idea of constitutional freedom (hurrigent)
89
When was the Tanzimat (Recognition) period?
It was between 1839 - 1876
90
What was the main aim of the Tanzimat?
To establish uniform & centralized administration , with justice.
91
What did the Young Ottomans do in the second part of the Century?
They initiated the first Constitutional period (lasted between 1876 to 1909)
92
What did the modernization created by the Tanzimat have consequences?
It created dependency of the Ottomans to the European powers.
93
When did Russia remove the Turks from the Balkans?
In 1877 - 1878
94
What did Sultan Abdul Hamid II do to at least try to prevent Modernization?
He reversed the Tanzimat policy & went back to the old ways of the Ottomans
95
What did Sultan Abdul Hamid II do when the Empire was completely weak?
He gave up by just stating that he is better of a Caliph than to be driven by the westerners.
96
Alongside Sultan Abdul Hamid II strategy of being a Caliph, what else was happening
Young Turks succeeded to spread the social & political elitism, and they managed the politics from 1912 to 1918
97
What results were brought by the Young Turks' modernization efforts (1912 - 1918)?
They managed to call the first Turkish Parliament in 1908
98
What stopped the Young Turks' modernization efforts?
They failed & split in 1909,, after a brief counter-revolution by Abdul Hamid II
99
When did the final collapse of the Ottoman Empire?
At the end of World war I
100
What happened actually at the collapse of the Ottoman empire?
The western powers overtook the Ottoman empire.
101
What made the Ottomans totally bail?
A nationalist struggle & civil war between the Nationalists & the ottoman dynasty led to the Turkish Republic being proclaimed by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.
102
When was the Turkish nation born?
At the end of World war I, after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire.
103
What were the Organs of the Ottoman government system?
- The Sultan (To lead & guide)
- The Military (To expand & protect)
- The Administrative (All administrative & finances)
- Religious/Cultural (prograrating & fostering faith)
104
Who is an Ulema?
A religious scholar who is taught at a religious school. Whose work is to propagate & teach faith & religion.
105
What does Divan-ı Hümayun mean? What was his role?
It means Imperial Council, he was the Sultan's ultimate deputy.
106
Which Family members were mostly found at the administrative & the army.?
The Turcoman families
107
Which Sultan did Osman overthrow in Byzantine?
The Anatolian Seljuk Sultan.
108
Who created the first Ottoman coins?
Orhan
109
How many Sovereigns did the Ottomans family produce during the 600 reign?
36 sovereigns
110
What led to a change in success in 1421?
The presence of the Military (The Janissaries), to be specific.
111
What was the Fratricidial struggle?
It was a struggle to seat on the throne, where prices were to fight each other. The one who wins takes the throne, while the losers flee to enemy countries.
112
What were the consequences of the Fratricidial struggles?
The non-stop Civil wars
113
Who created the Kanunname?
Mehmed II. And it stated that his sons, wanting the thrones, the one God puts him in the throne shall lawfully put his brothers to death.
114
What made the Kanunname not work effectively in stopping the Civil wars?
The Princes, at puberty age, were sent to old Anatolia provinces as Governors. While there, they still wanted to be close to the main throne, hence it brought wars again.
115
When did Sultan Ahmed III ruled?
from 1703 to 1730
116
Who were the Kadiaskers?
These are the military judges.
117
Who was Kapudan Pasha?
he was the head of the Ottoman navy early on during the initial times
118
Who was Defterdar?
He was an official dealing with finances at the early start of the Ottoman dynasty.
119
Who were the bey & the cadi?
The bey - appointed by the sultan from the military class to represent the sultan's executive authority.
The Kadi - appointed by the Sultan from the religious class to represent the legal authority.
120
What was the TIMAR SYSTEM?
The system where as troops collected the agricultural revenues directly from farmers due to the shortage of coins of Gold & Silver.
121
Early on from the 14th to the 16th century, how did the Ottoman dynasty do to transfer power?
Survival for the fittest, not the eldest.
122
How was the survival of the fittest method work (In brief)?
It involved princes fighting, from the provinces they were in scrambling first to reach the capital after a ruler died.,
123
When did the survival for the fit method of power succession end?
When Sultan Selim II came to power.
124
When did Sultan Selim II rule?
Between 1566 to 1574
125
When did Murat III rule?
1574 to 1595
126
When did Mehmet III rule?
1595 to 1603
127
What was Fratricide that Sultan the conquerer started?
The act of power succession by killing your own brothers or sisters.
128
How many relatives of his did Mehmet III kill after entering the throne?
He killed 19 of his brothers and sisters.
129
What happened in 1808?
Sultan Mahmut II executed his brother, Mustafa IV
130
After dumping the survival for the fittest approach, when did the succession by the oldest member of the family proceeded?
In 1617
131
What is Suzerianity?
The state of exercising power in a dependant state, especially in the foreign affairs.
132
What were the dhimmi?
They were the "protected" non-muslims in the Ottoman dynasty.
133
Who were the RULERS?, & who were the SUBJECTS?
The RULERS comprised of the Sultan & his administrators. The SUBJECTS were all the remaining citizens.
134
Who were the REAYA?
They are the SUBJECTS who work & pay taxes to the State.
135
What was the maid difference between the Muslims & the Non-Muslim?
The Muslims Pay a special-poll Tax called The JIZYA.
136
What was comprised in the Military class?
- The palace officials
- The military personnel
- The Administrative cadre
- The religious scholars
137
What was the DEVSHRIME system?
It was the failing of the Muslims to volunteer to be military fighters, hence letting the dynasty choose slaves as fighters, mostly Christian, after training & being handled government & military work.
138
WHo were the JANISSARIES?
They were the Christians who converted to Muslim & got trained to fight, protect & work for the Sultan government
139
What was KANUN or ORF?
It was when the Sultan gives a decree concerning the matters of Law & it gets passed as a Law.
140
What was Şeriat?
It was the Islamic rule/law which was the basis of the Ottoman law, apart from the Kanun law by the King.
141
WHo were appointed by the Sultan to administer the KANUN & ŞERIAT?
The Judges (kadis)
142
What were the other roles of the Kadi (Judge), apart from judging?
Oversee social, economic & municipal order of the Ottoman city.
143
Who were the Ulema?
They were the religious scholars consisting of the Mufti, Şeyhulislam, Muderris & others.
144
Who were the Şeyhulislam?
They were the highest religious leaders who were responsible to choose the MUFTI of the cities.
145
How was education conducted during Ottoman society?
Through Ulema., who supplied teachers with elementary resources (MEKTEB) & classes MADRASA.
146
Where did the Ottomans inherit the MADRASA system?
From the SELJUK TURKS.
147
WHERE & WHEN was the first MADRASA hosted/launched?
In IZNIK (NICEA), In 1331
148
What was the KULLIYE?
It was the MOSQUE COMPLEX built by Sultan Mehmed after the Conquer of Constantinople. It had 16 MADRASAS.
149
What is SEMANIYE?
These are LARGE MADRASAS.
150
What was the TETIMME?
These were the SMALLER MADRASAS
151
What were other MADRASAS that accompanied the main GENERAL MADRASA?
The HADITH MADRASA, & the MEDICAL HEALTH EDUCATION MADRASA (Dar El Tib).
152
How many Ottoman MADRASAS were built by 16th CENTURY?
350
153
What was the MILLET system?
The coexisting of the MUSLIMS & NON-MUSLIMS in the Same Community, by allowing Non-Muslims to be given a "Protected Status". Hence making them SECOND CLASS.
154
Who was the Head of the Cyprus Orthodox community?
The Archbishop of Cyprus (Milletbaşi)
155
What were the restrictions of the Non-Muslims during the Ottoman period?
- They could n't hold official posts
- They paid the poll-tax in exchange of political protection
- Non-muslim men were not allowed to marry a Muslim women, while the Muslim were allowed to marry the non-muslim women
-They were required to wear of certain color clothing
156
Upon modernization during the 16th to the 18th century, who were the main enemies of the Ottoman Empire?
Habsburg (Austria) & Russia
157
What main area were the Ottoman Lagging behind from, compared to other European countries?
Science & technology
158
Where did the Austrian Hapsburg defeated the Ottomans?
At Zenta
159
When was the Ottoman-Russian war?
In between 1768 to 1774
160
What was special when Ottomans lost Crimea to Russia in 1774?
They lost, for the first time, the Muslim territory
161
Who were the AYAN?
They were the real rulers who came & replaced the Ottoman rulers at the end of 18th century, as it died completely.
162
Which Century did the Ottomans fail hard behind on science & technology?
In the 17th century
163
In the end of the 17th century, how did the Jannisarries convert to power struggling?
Their rotations were becoming few & few, and they served permanent places, so they integrated with social-political activities.
164
Who was the REAYA?
It meant the RULED
165
Who was the MILITARY CLASS?
They were the people who were not the REAYA, they directly served the king
166
What was the JIZYA?
It was a special TAX for MUSLIMS in the Millet system
167
What was the DEVSHIRME (Recruitment) system?
It was a system where the military power was weakened, so instead the sultanic system started to recruit other Soldiers & slaves to the military.
168
Who were the JANISSARIES?
They were the Christians who later SLOWLY spread out as the military class through DEVSHRIME SYSTEM of recruitment.
169
Who was the MUHTESIB?
They were the Assistants who assisted the Kadi (Judge) in administration matters.
170
Who were the MUFTI?
Private Islamic scholars who had some PUBLIC RECOGNITION, and who interpreted the LAW to the KADI.
171
Where was the origin of the Ottoman dynasty?
Western Asia minor
172
What was the other name for the Byzantine Empire?
Eastern Roman empire
173
As Constantinople was struggling, what was the most dominant states by then?
The Slavic people (Serbians & Bulgarians)
174
Where did Sultan Bayezid I expand up to?
River Danube (Tuna) & Euphrates (Firat)
175
What was Constantinople the Capital city of?
East Roman Empire (Byzantine)
176
What were the Holy cities back then that Sultan Salim I had to incorporate to protect?
Hijaz, Medina & Mecca
177
Which cities did Suleyman I add to the Dynasty?
Iraq & Central Hungary
178
Back after the Monguls invaded Anatolia, which were the Standing Empires?
- Iranian empire (Middle)
- Ottomans (West)
- Mughal empire of Delhi (East)
179
What made the Ottoman Empire rise?
The FEUDALISM system by which the Government entice people with land & other benefits & they fight for them. And it was also a MONARCHY State.
180
What's a MONARCHY?
A state in which authority is granted to a single individual, and always through hereditary means
181
Where did the Ottomans inherit the FEUDALISM system?
From the Seljuks.
182
What did the Ottoman CENTRALLY create to make them sustain?
They sustained the CENTRAL POLITY. (Establishing Central Systems)
183
Which Empires did the OTTOMAN overtook?
The SELJUKS & THE BYZANTINES.
184
Who were the RULING CLASS?
The Askeriye, or the MILITARY.
185
What proverb did Tursman Berg, the statesman quote?
The Nation should have a statesman status, where there is Peace & harmony
186
What was the first city capital of the Ottoman?
Brusa, captured by Orhan in 1326
187
What were CAPITULATIONS?
They were economic agreements signed Between the OTTOMANS & THE EUROPEAN Countries starting from 1536
188
Who made the first Ottoman coins?
Orhan
189
What was the Kannuname?
A Law passed by Mehmet II that of his sons, the one who shall put his brothers to death shall be the ruler
190
Who were the Grandviziers?
They were the Sultan's Head of the governments, they chaired a council of other viziers.
191
Who were the Kadiaskers?
They were the Judges (Kadis)
192
Who was the Nişancı
An official responsible for the palace scribal services.
193
WHo was Kapudan Pasha?
He was the head of the Palace Scribal services.
194
Who was the Defterdar?
He was responsible for finances
195
The tradition of survival of the fittest copied what Culture?
The Central Asian culture
196
How often was the DEVSHRIME SYSTEM?
It was every 4 years, but later it became more often
197
What's the other name for KANUN?
Örf
198
What was the Iltizam system?
It was the tax-farming system where the right to collect taxes were allocated to entrepreneurs & tax-farmers
199
Who were the kuloğlus?
They were the sons of the Slave DEVSRIME
200
Where was the Christian recruits in the DEVSRIME system taken from?
From Balkan Provinces
201
Who headed the Janissaries in the 1730 rebellion?
Patrona Halil
202
Who was Grand Vizier Damad Ibrahim
He was one of the Grand viziers who died in the rebellion by the Janissaries in 1730
203
What did the Celali revolts bring?
They brought upheavals & a new SECTION of Leaders called the Sekbans was created.
204
Who was Karayazici Abdülhalim?
A Sekban leader who arise & influenced people to pay tribute to the dominating Sivas & the Dulkadir in Central Anatolia
205
Who was Comte de Bonneval,?
He was the one to recommend that the military fail before of education, and recommended the open of Corps of Bombardies
206
What did De Tott convince Mustafa III in 1772?
He convinced him to build ARTILERY SCHOOL
207
What was the Nizam-i Cedid?
It was the New order introduced by Sultan Selim III to introduce the Strength in the Central State
208
Years Selim III established Ottoman Embassies in Europe:
London (1793), Vienna (1794), Berlin (1795) & France (1796)
209
What was Special about Mahmut II?
Westernization completely entered Ottoman Dynasty during his reign
210
Who put Mahmut II in power, when was it?
Alemder Mustafa Pasha in 1808
211
What caused the Nationalist struggle?
A byproduct of French revolution
212
When was the Greeks forming a struggle for this claim of the Byzantine Empire?
In 1814 by the Greek Merchants in Odessa
213
When did the Greek rebelled against the Ottoman Authority?
In 1821
214
When did Greeks gained their independence? (How)?
In 1829, after getting support from Russia, France & British
215
Who was Mehmet Ali Pasha?
He was a governor of Egypt who was a threat to Sultan Mahmut II, as he had defeated Ottoman in 2 wars, & claimed Syria
216
What was the Hünkar İskelesi Treaty?
Passed in 1833 under the influence of Mehmet Ali Pasha to threaten against Mahmut II, to accept Russian support & to assign him as Syria's governor
217
When was the abolishment of the Janissary Corps (VAKA-İ HAYRİYE)?
In 1826 by Sultan Mahmut II
218
When did Mahmut II created the Army Medical School & sent students to Europe to study so as to gett new knowledge?
In 1827
219
When was the Transaltion office opened under Mahmut II?
In 1833
220
What CENTRAL GOVERNMENT REFORMS Mahmut II dO?
He:
- Reduced the powers of the Grand Viziers & created a cabinet out of them
- He also created a Judicial council for the issues of legislation implementation (Law)
221
When was the first Newspaper (Gazette) under Mahmut II launched?
1831
222
When was the first CENSUS under Mahmut II?
1831 to 1838
223
When was the Tanzimat PERIOD?
Between 1839 to 1876
224
When did the Ottomans lose to the Egyptians?
In 1839 at the battle of Nizip
225
Which Sultan brought the Tanzimat period?
Sultan Abdülmecid
226
What does Tanzimat mean?
Ordering, regulating & restructuring.
227
What did the Gulhane decree (Edict of Tanzimat) AIM for?
- To get European power support
- To foster patriotism & Ottomanism
- Preventing foreign power intervention in domestic issues
- Solve treasury crisis
228
What law was passed in 1864?
The provincial law as part of the reforms, the provinces were categorized as: Province, County, district, rural community & village
229
Ottoman Bank was established in?
In 1856 as a British entreprise
230
When was Paper currency (Kaime) put in circulation?
In 1840, but withdrawn in 1862 due to market crash & Counterfeit
231
What killed many people in 1870?
Famine in the Anatolia lands
232
What consortium was created in 1881?
a consortium of Foreign creditors
233
When & what was the Treaty of Paris about?
In 1856, it was about ending the tension of the Crimean War, as Russia defended the Orthodox church, while British & France defended the Ottomans
234
What was the result of the CRIMEAN WAR?
The Imperial decree
235
Who was the first Ottoman Sultan to visit Europe?
Sultan Abdulaziz
236
What was OTTOMANISM?
The new system to declare that all citizens were equal under law
