AI Test Flashcards
What is general pathology?
Study of the underlying mechanisms of disease focusing on changes in structure and function at molecular, cellular, and tissue levels.
What does systemic pathology study?
The study of disease as it occurs within a particular organ system.
What is cytopathology?
Study of disease on a cellular level, where cells may be obtained by aspiration, scrapings, biopsies, or fluids.
What is the definition of aetiology?
The cause of a disease.
How is pathogenesis defined?
How the aetiology brings about the disease.
What is pathophysiology?
The physiology of abnormal states, specifically the functional changes that accompany a particular syndrome or disease.
What does pathognomonic refer to?
An abnormality characteristic only of that disease or condition.
What is morphology in pathology?
The features which are seen with the naked eye or via the microscope.
What are clinical manifestations?
The symptoms and signs with which a disease presents.
What does the natural history of disease describe?
The natural progress of a disease which is left untreated.
What is a predisposing factor?
A factor that makes the body more susceptible to a disease and may alter the course of the disease.
What is a complication in the context of disease?
The possible consequences of a disease if restitution of normal structure and function does not occur.
What is prevention in disease management?
Activities which aim to stop the development of a disease or prevent it from worsening.
What is prognosis?
The likely outcome of a disease.
What does morbidity refer to?
The amount of ill health caused by a disease.
What does mortality refer to?
The loss of life caused by the disease.
Fill in the blank: The study of disease on a cellular level is called _______.
cytopathology
True or False: Pathognomonic abnormalities are common to multiple diseases.
False
What is a lesion?
This is the part of tissue directly affected by the disease process.
Define localized disease.
A limited area of tissue is involved in the disease process.
What characterizes widespread disease?
More extensive areas of tissue are affected by the disease process.
What is systemic disease?
Most of the body is affected, often due to a virus spreading in the blood causing fever, pains, and general malaise.
What does multi-system disease involve?
A number of body systems are involved in the disease process.
Name types of diseases classified by the body system or organ involved.
- Neurological disease
- Liver disease
- Gastrointestinal disease
What is an acute disease?
A disorder which is either reasonably severe or characterized by a sudden onset and termination.
Define chronic disease.
A disorder characterized by a gradual onset and long duration, with a clinical course that may be continuous or marked by fluctuations of severity.
What is intermittent disease?
Disease undergoes ‘cycles’ of appearing and disappearing.
What is remission?
A temporary or permanent decrease in the severity of a disease.
What does relapse refer to?
A return of the disease.
What is diagnosis?
The art of distinguishing one disease from another and identifying a disease or condition through scientific evaluation.
Define differential diagnosis.
The determination of a list of possible diseases by evaluating symptoms, signs, and laboratory tests.
What is history taking?
The process of asking a series of questions to develop a differential diagnosis for a patient’s presenting complaints.
What does physical examination involve?
Observation of the patient and the use of physical techniques such as palpation, percussion, and auscultation.
What is a symptom?
Perceptions of the patient which may indicate a disorder of the body, mind, or emotions.
Define sign in medical terms.
Objective evidence of a disorder attained through physical examination.
What is a syndrome?
A cluster of symptoms and signs that consistently occur together.
What are investigations in the context of disease detection?
Processes that include analysis of body fluids, imaging, and measuring electrical activity to determine the cause of a patient’s problem.
What is gross pathology?
Macroscopic or naked eye examination.
What is light microscopy?
Cut sections from tissues are embedded, sectioned, stained, and viewed under microscopy.
Describe electron microscopy.
Study changes at the molecular level using high-resolution images formed by a beam of electrons.
What are cell cultures?
Organisms artificially grown in a controlled environment for diagnostic or research purposes.
What is the basic structural and functional unit of the body?
The cell
The cell is essential for all biological processes.
What is the cell membrane also known as?
Plasma membrane
The cell membrane regulates movement of molecules into and out of the cell.
What are the main components of the cell membrane?
- Phospholipids
- Glycolipids
- Cholesterol
- Protein
These components contribute to the membrane’s structure and function.
What is the primary function of the cell membrane?
Act as a physical barrier and regulate movement of molecules
It also mediates cellular recognition and interaction.
What does ‘selective permeability’ mean in the context of the cell membrane?
Allows some substances in or out, but not others
This property is crucial for maintaining homeostasis.
List the ways substances can cross the cell membrane.
- Simple diffusion
- Facilitated diffusion
- Active transport
- Filtration
- Osmosis
- Endocytosis
- Exocytosis
Each method varies in energy requirement and mechanism.
What is the function of the nucleus in the cell?
Acts as the ‘brain’ of the cell and contains DNA
The DNA encodes instructions for making cells, tissues, and organs.
What does the cytoplasm contain?
Cytosol and organelles
Cytosol is the fluid portion, while organelles perform various functions.
What is cytosol?
The fluid portion of the cytoplasm
It contains water, dissolved solutes, and various suspended particles.
What are organelles?
Specialized structures within the cell that regulate growth, maintenance, and reproduction
Each organelle has a specific function essential for cell operation.
What is the function of centrioles?
Contain DNA for self-replication
Centrioles play a role in cell division.
What do centrosomes do?
Serve as a center for organizing microtubules
They assist during cell division by forming mitotic spindles.
What is the cytoskeleton composed of?
- Microfilaments
- Microtubules
It helps give the cell shape and support and aids in movement of cell structures.
What is the primary function of the endoplasmic reticulum?
Provides mechanical support, facilitates material exchange, and conducts nerve impulses in muscle cells
It serves as a surface for chemical reactions.
What is the rough-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum (rER) responsible for?
Synthesis of proteins
Ribosomes attach to rER for protein production.
What does the smooth-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum (sER) synthesize?
- Fatty acids
- Phospholipids
- Steroids
sER is involved in lipid metabolism.
What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?
Packages synthesized proteins for secretion
It also forms lysosomes and synthesizes carbohydrates and glycoproteins.
What do lysosomes do?
Digest substances and foreign materials
They contain enzymes for breaking down waste.
What is the role of mitochondria in the cell?
Powerhouse of the cell; produces ATP
ATP is the main energy currency of the cell.
What do peroxisomes contain?
Enzymes to detoxify harmful substances
They play a crucial role in cellular metabolism.
What is the site of protein synthesis in the cell?
Ribosomes
They can be found floating freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the rER.
What are the two main types of epithelial tissue?
- Covering and lining type
- Glandular type
Covering and lining type covers body and organs, while glandular type forms secretory parts of glands.
What are the four types of tissues in the body?
- Epithelial tissue
- Connective tissue
- Muscle tissue
- Nervous tissue
These tissues comprise groups of similar cells.
What are the functions of epithelial tissue?
- Protection
- Secretion
- Lubrication
- Digestion
- Absorption
- Excretion
- Filtration
Epithelial tissue serves multiple essential functions in the body.
What are the characteristics of epithelial tissue?
- Cells closely packed together
- Avascular
- High capacity to regenerate
- Has a nerve supply
- Varies in cell shapes (squamous, cuboidal, columnar, transitional)
- Can be simple, stratified, or pseudostratified
These characteristics contribute to the unique functions of epithelial tissue.
What is the primary function of connective tissue?
- Binds structures together
- Supports and strengthens other body tissues
- Protects and insulates internal organs
- Compartmentalizes structures
Connective tissue plays a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity of the body.
What are the characteristics of connective tissue?
- Contains a matrix in which cells are embedded
- Generally not found on a free surface
- Has a nerve supply (except cartilage)
- Highly vascular (except cartilage and tendons)
- Cells vary by type (e.g., fibroblasts, macrophages)
- Matrix contains protein fibers
The matrix and its components determine the type and quality of connective tissue.
List the four main types of connective tissue.
- Connective tissue proper
- Cartilage
- Osseous (bone tissue)
- Blood
Each type of connective tissue has distinct structures and functions.
What are the three types of muscle tissue?
- Skeletal muscle tissue
- Smooth muscle tissue
- Cardiac muscle tissue
Each type of muscle tissue is specialized for contraction.
What are the two main types of cells in nervous tissue?
- Neurones
- Neuroglia
Neurones are the functional units, while neuroglia support and nourish them.
What are epithelial membranes?
Thin, sheet-like structures comprising an epithelial and connective tissue layer
They serve as protective barriers and are crucial for various body functions.
What are the two main types of epithelial membranes?
- Mucous membrane (mucosa)
- Serous membranes
Mucous membranes line cavities open to the exterior, while serous membranes line cavities not directly open to the exterior.
Fill in the blank: Synovial membranes consist of _______ only.
connective tissue
These membranes line the cavities of freely movable joints.
What is homeostasis?
A condition in which the internal environment remains relatively constant within limits.
What are the three requirements for maintaining homeostasis?
- Optimum concentration of nutrients, water, gases, and ions
- Optimal temperature
- Optimal pressure for cell function
What can disturb homeostasis?
Any imbalance in the internal environment.
What may cause imbalances in homeostasis?
Some form of stimulus called a stressor, which may be mild or extreme.
Can stressors originate from inside the body?
Yes, stressors may originate from either inside or outside the body.
True or False: Homeostasis can only be disturbed by external factors.
False
Fill in the blank: Homeostasis requires the internal environment to contain optimum concentration of _______.
[nutrients, water, gases, and ions]
What is the consequence of an imbalance in homeostasis?
It may cause ill health or death.
What does the body have to maintain homeostasis?
Many devices that try to maintain homeostasis.
What is a stressor?
A physical, mental, or emotional factor that causes bodily or mental tension.
What are the two types of stressors?
Internal and external.
What are examples of external stressors?
Environmental, psychological, or social situations.
What are examples of internal stressors?
Illness or from a medical procedure.
How can stressors be categorized based on their duration?
Temporary or long-term.
What is injury?
A pathological process in the tissue due to stress, disrupting normal structure and/or function.
How is injury different from trauma?
Injury is a pathological process; trauma is a type of injury.
What are the causes of injury?
Environmental and genetic influences.
What are environmental influences on health?
Factors that play a major role in disease development.
What are the three classifications of environmental factors related to disease?
- Aetiology
- Predisposing factors
- Contributory factors
What are examples of physical agents that influence health?
Radiation and mechanical trauma.
What are examples of chemical agents that influence health?
Tobacco, toxins, and dusts.
What are biological agents that can influence health?
Viruses, bacteria, and fungi.
What nutritional factors can influence health?
Nutritional deficiencies or excesses.
What is meant by iatrogenic diseases?
Diseases caused by the health professions.
How can genetic influences manifest?
Clinical manifestations may present at varying times post-birth or may never appear.
What is the significance of environmental influence on genetic makeup?
It can range from insignificant to profound.
Why is classification of diseases useful?
For communication, diagnosis, treatment, record keeping, research, and psychosocial/economic factors.
What are the two main classifications of diseases?
- Congenital
- Acquired
What are the subcategories of congenital diseases?
- Genetic (genes, DNA, chromosome)
- Non-genetic (infections, malformation)
What typically causes acquired diseases?
Mostly environmental causes.
What is aetiology?
The cause of the disease.
What is defined as a pathological process in tissue due to stress?
Injury
Injury disrupts normal structure and/or function of tissue
What are the two types of cell injury?
- Reversible
- Irreversible
What occurs during reversible cell injury?
Non-lethal damage that can be corrected by removal of the stimulus
This includes temporary alteration in cell function and effective adaptive mechanisms
What leads to irreversible cell injury?
Lethal damage leading to cell death
What is the ‘point of no return’ in cell injury?
The transition between reversible and irreversible damage
What are some non-lethal outcomes of cell injury?
- Temporary alteration in cell function
- Effective adaptive mechanism triggered
- Structural damage with permanent impairment of function
- DNA mutation
What factors influence the outcome of cell injury?
- Type of injury
- Duration of injury
- Severity of injury
- Type of cell/tissue being injured
- Current status of the tissue
- Adaptability of the tissue
What are labile cells?
Cells that constantly divide to replenish those that are lost, e.g., skin and bone marrow
What are stable cells?
Cells that can divide but do so occasionally, e.g., liver and kidney
What are permanent cells?
Cells that have lost the ability to divide, e.g., neurones and cardiac muscle
What are common stressors causing cell injury?
- Direct damage to proteins, membranes, DNA
- Mitochondrial damage causing ATP depletion
- Increasing intracellular calcium
- Damaging membranes
- Forming free radicals
What is oncosis?
Cellular swelling due to decreased ATP synthesis affecting sodium-potassium-ATPase function
What occurs when a cell switches from aerobic to anaerobic respiration?
Depletion of cytoplasmic glycogen and production of lactic acid
What may fatty change in cells lead to?
- Mild: No effect on function
- Severe: Transient impairment of function
- Very severe: May precede cell death
What are the signs of irreversible cell injury?
- Vacuoles in cytoplasm
- Severe mitochondrial damage
- Rupture of lysosomes
- Massive influx of calcium
- Changes in cell nucleus (pyknosis, karyorrhexis, karyolysis)
- Cell membrane defects worsen
What is ischaemia?
Inadequate blood flow to tissues, often due to narrowed arteries
What is hypoxia?
Decrease in tissue oxygenation
What is anoxia?
Absence of tissue oxygenation
What is necrosis?
Cell death as a result of injury, often due to ischaemia
What is infarction?
Necrosis occurring as a consequence of ischaemia
What is the accumulation of abnormal substances within cells?
Cells may accumulate abnormal amounts of substances either transiently or permanently, which may be harmless or cause injury.
What are the sources of substances that may accumulate in cells?
Substances may come from:
* Outside the body (e.g., carbon particles from polluted air)
* Inside the body from normal substances (e.g., water, glycogen, fat, protein)
* Inside the body from abnormal metabolism or synthesis.
What is oncosis?
Accumulation of water in cells.
What is steatosis?
Accumulation of fat in cells.
Which diseases are associated with glycogen accumulation?
Glycogen storage diseases.
What are lysosomal storage diseases?
Diseases associated with the accumulation of carbohydrates and lipids.
What are neurofibrillary tangles?
Accumulation of proteins associated with Alzheimer’s disease.
What is melanin?
A pigment that may accumulate in pigmented moles and melanomas.
What is haemosiderin?
A yellow-brown pigment derived from haemoglobin that may accumulate with excess iron.
What condition is associated with excess bilirubin accumulation?
Jaundice, which causes yellow skin coloration.
What is dystrophic calcification?
Calcium accumulation in dead or injured cells.
What is metastatic calcification?
Calcium accumulation in normal cells due to excess calcium in the blood.
What causes urate (uric acid) accumulation?
Increased production or impaired excretion via the kidneys.
What condition can present with urate accumulation?
Gout.
What is lipochrome?
A yellow-brown pigment that builds up over time as a result of wear and tear.
What are inorganic dusts that may accumulate in the lungs?
Coal dust, silica dust, asbestos.
What are examples of organic dusts that may accumulate?
Dust from mouldy hay, bird droppings.
What is necrosis?
Necrosis is the sum of cellular changes after local cell death and the process of cellular self-digestion, known as autodigestion or autolysis.
Reference: McCance and Heuther Pathophysiology 8th ed 2019, p88
What happens at the ‘point of no return’ in cell death?
The cell is said to have reached the stage of biochemical necrosis.
What is the role of lysosomal hydrolases after cell death?
They progressively digest cellular constituents, but there is widespread leakage of cellular enzymes into the extracellular space.
What is Histological Necrosis?
It occurs when necrotic tissue exhibits distinctive morphologic appearances visible to the naked eye and under the microscope.
What characterizes Coagulative Necrosis?
It is characterized by preservation of the basic structural outline of necrotic cells or tissue for several days.
Give an example of Coagulative Necrosis.
Myocardial infarction.
What is Colliquative (Liquefactive) Necrosis?
It is characteristic of focal bacterial infections and results in complete digestion of dead cells, often seen in abscesses.
What is Caseous Necrosis?
A distinctive form of necrosis encountered most often in foci of tuberculosis infection, resembling a cheesy appearance.
What does Gangrenous Necrosis refer to?
Ischaemic coagulative necrosis of a limb, usually the lower limb, which can be wet or dry.
What causes Fat Necrosis?
Destruction of fat, typically due to acute pancreatitis or trauma.
What is Fibrinoid (Hyaline) Necrosis?
Necrosis occurring in connective tissue within blood vessel walls, associated with hypertension and autoimmune diseases.
What are the potential effects of necrosis?
Death of a person if a vital tissue is affected, inflammation, removal of necrotic tissue, replacement by scar tissue, or calcification.
What is apoptosis?
A physiological process of cell death, programmed into cells at a certain stage in their life cycle.
What type of necrosis is apoptosis described as?
Shrinkage necrosis.
What is autophagy?
A mode of self-destruction and a survival mechanism involved in the removal of worn-out and damaged organelles.
List the processes in which autophagy plays a role.
- Development
- Cell proliferation
- Remodelling
- Cardiovascular homeostasis
- Ageing
- Inflammatory process
How do autophagy and apoptosis relate to each other?
They control the turnover of organelles and proteins within cells and of cells within organisms, influencing the clearance of dying cells.
True or False: Autophagy and apoptosis are completely independent processes.
False.
What is the definition of cellular adaptation?
The effect of stressors on cells, causing them to adapt.
What are the two main classifications of cellular adaptations?
- Physiological or Pathological
- Reversible or Irreversible
What can result from cellular adaptations?
- No cell injury
- Mild and reversible cell injury
- Severe and irreversible cell injury causing cell death
Define hypertrophy.
An increase in the mass of an organ due to an increase in the size of its specialized cells.
What is physiological hypertrophy?
Hypertrophy that occurs as a normal response to increased workload, such as in athletes.
Provide an example of pathological hypertrophy.
Left ventricular hypertrophy due to elevated blood pressure.
Define hyperplasia.
An increase in the mass of an organ due to an increase in the number of its specialized constituent cells.
What is physiological hyperplasia?
Hyperplasia occurring in response to normal physiological demands, such as breast development during puberty.
What is compensatory hyperplasia?
Enlargement of an organ after the removal of one of a pair, such as kidney hyperplasia after nephrectomy.
What causes pathological hyperplasia?
Excess stimulation by hormones or other stressors, leading to abnormal tissue growth.
Define atrophy.
A decrease in the mass of an organ due to a decrease in the size or number of its specialized constituent cells.
What is physiological atrophy?
Atrophy that occurs as a normal part of development, such as thymic involution.
What is an example of localized pathological atrophy?
Neuropathic atrophy due to motor neuron death in poliomyelitis.
What is metaplasia?
The conversion of fully differentiated adult tissue to a less specialized form in response to chronic injury.
Is metaplasia reversible?
Yes, if the stimulus is removed.
What is dysplasia?
Abnormal growth and differentiation of cells leading to disordered and atypical growth.
Is dysplasia a pathological condition?
Yes, dysplasia is always pathological.
What can cause dysplasia?
- Chronic irritation
- Injury
- Stressors like cigarette smoking and infections
Fill in the blank: Hypertrophy can be classified as _______ or _______.
[physiological] and [pathological]
Fill in the blank: Hyperplasia can be classified as physiological, compensatory, _______ or _______.
[pathological] and [reactive]
True or False: Atrophy can only be pathological.
False
What type of hyperplasia occurs in response to infection?
Reactive hyperplasia.
What is an example of generalized pathological atrophy?
Malnutrition or starvation leading to tissue atrophy.
What is the relationship between dysplasia and cancer?
Dysplasia is considered a premalignant condition.
Provide an example of metaplasia in smokers.
Normal respiratory epithelium changing to stratified squamous epithelium.
What is aplasia?
Lack of or faulty development of an organ or tissue or sudden cessation of growth, causing tissue to shrink or disappear.
Aplasia is an acquired defect.
What is hypoplasia?
Underdevelopment or incomplete development of an organ or tissue.
Hypoplasia is always pathological.
What can cause aplastic anaemia?
Aplasia of the bone marrow due to drug therapy (chemotherapy), radiotherapy, nuclear accidents, etc.
Aplastic anaemia results from the failure of the bone marrow to produce blood cells.
In which genetic disorder is hypoplasia of the breasts often observed?
Turner’s syndrome.
Turner’s syndrome involves having only 1 X chromosome.
What does agenesis refer to?
Absence of development of an organ or tissue during embryonic development due to some abnormality with primordial tissues.
Agenesis is similar to aplasia.
Give an example of agenesis.
Failure of development of organs such as kidneys, uterus, ovaries, and testes.
Specific tissues like the corpus callosum may also fail to develop.
What is dystrophy?
Abnormal growth and differentiation of tissue usually due to genetic disorders of nutrition and metabolism.
Dystrophy is often associated with muscle disorders.
Name a well-known type of muscular dystrophy.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
Many genetic muscular dystrophies exist.
What are hamartomas?
Focal developmental anomalies characterized by overgrowth of normal cells in a tissue where they are usually found.
Hamartomas often appear like tumors but are not neoplastic.
What is a benign melanocytic naevus?
A mole caused by excessive melanocyte proliferation in the skin.
It is an example of a hamartoma.
What are haemangiomas?
Excessive blood vessel proliferation within the skin, such as strawberry birthmarks and cherry angiomas.
These are also examples of hamartomas.
What are ‘bone islands’ or enostoses?
Areas of compact bone found within cancellous bone.
They represent another example of hamartomas.
What is a choristoma?
A focal overgrowth of normal cells arising developmentally in a tissue where these cells usually would not be present.
Choristomata are normal functioning tissues.
Give an example of choristoma.
Endometriosis, characterized by endometrial tissue outside the lining of the uterus.
Endometrial tissue can occur in various locations, including the ovaries and pelvic peritoneum.
