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2
Q

What is unique about carbon’s ability to form compounds?

A

Carbon can form four very strong bonds with other atoms.

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3
Q

How many types of bonds can carbon form with other carbon atoms?

A

Carbon can form single, double, or triple bonds with other carbon atoms.

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4
Q

What is the simplest hydrocarbon?

A

Methane (CH4).

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5
Q

What is the name of the series for the first hydrocarbon series?

A

The alkane series.

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6
Q

What is the molecular formula?

A

C4H8

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7
Q

What does the empirical formula represent?

A

The simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound

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8
Q

What does the structural formula represent?

A

The arrangement of atoms in a molecule of a compound

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9
Q

What are structural isomers?

A
  • Molecules with the same molecular formula but different structural formula
  • CH3-CH=CH-CH3
  • CH2=CH-CH2-CH3
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10
Q

What is a homologous series?

A

A series of organic compounds which conform to a general formula, have the same functional group (if present), behave similarly in chemical reactions but have different physical properties

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11
Q

What are saturated compounds?

A

Compounds with single bonds between carbon atoms

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12
Q

What are unsaturated compounds?

A

Compounds with at least one double or triple bond in chain or ring form

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13
Q

What are aromatic compounds?

A

Compounds in which a benzene ring forms part of the molecule

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14
Q

What are the properties of alkanes and alkenes?

A
  • Physical properties:
    • As the number of carbon atoms in the chain increases, members of a homologous series show a gradual change in their physical properties
    • Compounds with smaller molecules are more volatile than those with larger molecules
    • These more volatile compounds also have lower viscosity
  • Chemical properties:
    • Alkenes undergo addition reactions with halogens such as bromine and hydrogen
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15
Q

What are the physical properties of alkanes?

A
  • Methane:
    • Molecular Formula: CH4
    • Boiling Point: -164°C
  • Ethane:
    • Molecular Formula: C2H6
    • Boiling Point: -88.6°C
  • Propane:
    • Molecular Formula: C3H8
    • Boiling Point: -42.1°C
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16
Q

What are the physical properties of alkenes?

A

Ethene:
* Molecular Formula: C2H4
* Boiling Point: -103.7°C

Propene:
* Molecular Formula: C3H6
* Boiling Point: -47.7°C

But-1-ene:
* Molecular Formula: C4H8
* Boiling Point: -6.3°C

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17
Q

What is the common name for the first member of the alkyne homologous series?

A

Acetylene

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18
Q

What is the systematic name for the first member of the alkyne homologous series?

A

Ethyne

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19
Q

What is the common name for the second member of the alkyne homologous series?

A

Propyne

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20
Q

What is the naming system developed in the 1960s that is universally recognized for hydrocarbons?

A

IUPAC

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21
Q

What is the ending in the name of a hydrocarbon with all single carbon-to-carbon bonds?

A

ane

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22
Q

What is the ending in the name of a hydrocarbon with one double carbon-to-carbon bond?

A

ene

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23
Q

What is the ending in the name of a hydrocarbon with one triple carbon-to-carbon bond?

A

yne

24
Q

How do you name straight-chain alkenes or alkynes?

A

Number the carbon atoms in the chain, starting at the end that will give the first carbon atom involved in the double bond or triple bond the smallest number possible.

25
Q

What is the name of the alkyl group that forms a branch in a branched-chain hydrocarbon derived from methane?

A

Methyl group

26
Q

What is the name of the alkyl group formed by removing one hydrogen atom from ethane?

A

Ethyl group

27
Q

What are the rules for systematic naming of branched hydrocarbons?

A
  1. Determine the longest chain of carbon atoms.
  2. Determine which end is nearest to a branch, a double bond or a triple bond. (A double or triple bond takes precedence over a branch.)
  3. Number the carbon atoms from the end chosen.
  4. Name any branches first with the ending -yl (for example, methane becomes methyl and ethane becomes ethyl), then the longest chain, then any single or double bond.
  5. When two or more branches occur on the same carbon atom, the number of the carbon atom is indicated for each branch, with the names given in alphabetical order.
  6. When two or more identical branches occur on different carbon atoms, the prefixes di-, tri- and tetra- are used.
28
Q

What is the systematic name for methanol?

A

Methanol

29
Q

What is the systematic name for ethanol?

A

Ethanol

30
Q

What is the systematic name for propan-1-ol?

A

Propan-1-ol

31
Q

What causes the boiling point of alcohols to increase with carbon chain length?

A

Increased dispersion forces

32
Q

Why do alcohols have higher boiling points than similar molecular mass alkanes, alkenes, aldehydes, and ketones?

A

Ability to undergo hydrogen bonding in addition to experiencing dispersion forces

33
Q

Why are the first members of the alcohol series soluble in polar solvents such as water?

A

Ability to undergo hydrogen bonding

34
Q

How does the solubility of alcohols change with chain length?

A

Solubility decreases

The hydroxyl group has less influence on the overall polarity of the molecule with increasing chain length.

35
Q

What is the definition of primary alcohols?

A

Alcohols where the -OH functional group is bonded to a carbon atom that is in turn bonded to a single hydrocarbon chain (R)

36
Q

What is the definition of secondary alcohols?

A

Alcohols where the -OH functional group is bonded to a carbon atom that is in turn bonded to two hydrocarbon chains (R and R’)

37
Q

What is the definition of tertiary alcohols?

A

Alcohols where the -OH functional group is bonded to a carbon atom that is in turn bonded to three hydrocarbon chains (R, R’, and R”)

38
Q

How can primary and secondary alcohols be distinguished from tertiary alcohols?

A

By their reaction with acidified dichromate solution (H+/Cr2O72-)

39
Q

What happens when acidified dichromate is added to primary or secondary alcohols and warmed?

A

They undergo oxidation to aldehydes and ketones respectively, resulting in a color change from orange to green.

40
Q

Are tertiary alcohols easily oxidized?

A

No.

41
Q

How is ethanol produced from fermentation?

A

From the fermentation of glucose, a monosaccharide, or the hydrolysis of a disaccharide or polysaccharide to a monosaccharide, followed by fermentation.

42
Q

What is the hydrolysis of polysaccharides to disaccharides?

A

(C6H10O5)n + ½ nH2O → ½ nC12H22O11

43
Q

What is the hydrolysis of disaccharides to monosaccharides?

A

C12H22O11 + H2O → 2C6H12O6

44
Q

What is the fermentation of ethanol?

A

C6H12O6 [enzymes] → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

45
Q

What are the requirements and conditions for fermentation?

A
  • Simple sugar - monosaccharide
  • Yeast - enzymes
  • Aqueous environment
  • Warm conditions - optimum 20 - 30°C
  • Anaerobic conditions - limited oxygen
  • Slightly acidic pH
46
Q

What happens during fermentation?

A

Heat is produced in an exothermic reaction and carbon dioxide is observed as effervescence.

47
Q

What is the maximum concentration of ethanol that can be reached during fermentation?

A

Approximately 15%

Yeast cannot survive beyond this concentration.

48
Q

How can alcohols with higher concentrations be produced?

A

Through simple or fractional distillation.

49
Q

What is the functional group of an ester?

A

-COO- ester functional group

50
Q

What is the general formula of an ester?

A

RCOOR’

51
Q

What is the systematic name of an ester?

A

Alkyl alkanoate [alkyl - alcohol & alkanoate - carboxylic acid]

52
Q

What are some examples of short chain esters?

A

Fragrances

53
Q

What are some examples of long chain esters?

A

Fats and oils

54
Q

How do esters compare to alcohols and carboxylic acids in terms of boiling point and solubility in water?

A

Esters have lower boiling points and are less soluble in water due to the loss of the OH group in formation.

Esters lose the ability to undergo hydrogen bonding between molecules.

55
Q

How are esters prepared?

A

By reacting an alcohol with a carboxylic acid in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst. Water is also produced.

Heating under reflux increases the rate of reaction and ensures that the volatile products are returned to the reaction vessel. Sulfuric acid acts as a catalyst increasing the rate of reaction.

Stage 1 Chemistry (2 decks)

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