Aggression (Paper 3) ✓ Flashcards
Monday 9th June - 9:15 → 11:15
Limbic system
A set of sub cortical brain structures which are thought to be associated with the control of emotions such as fear and aggression
What does the limbic system include
amygdala and hippocampus
What is the amygdala responsible for
rapidly interpreting sensory information and providing an appropriate emotional response
What is the hippocampus responsible for
dealing with the formation of l;ong term memories
2x supporting evidence/ 1x weakness of the limbic system
+Hamster research found that when the amygdala is electrically stimulated, the hamster will prepare to attack, when the amygdala is destroyed they will not attack
+ Man who had surgery to destroy part of the amygdala no longer had any outbursts of unprovoked violent behaviour
- Most of the research is correlational so no cause and effect
Explanation for low levels of serotonin and aggression
- Serotonin mediates an individuals emotional response to a situation.
- Has a calming effect on neurons firing in the brain.
- Low levels disrupt this calming affect resulting in aggression being more likely.
Explanation for high levels of serotonin and aggression
- During development in the womb, the brain can become flooded with serotonin.
- This makes it less sensitive to the calming effect of serotonin.
- When the limbic system is stimulated, the individual may behave aggressively because the pre frontal cortex isn’t acting as a ‘brake’ as it usually would.
2x supporting evidence / 1x weakness of serotonin
+ Correlation found lower levels of waste product of serotonin in the cerebrospinal fluid of people with aggressive behaviour
+ Low serotonin levels are associated with impulsive aggression in monkeys, and assaults, and violent suicide in humans. High levels of alcohol reduces serotonin which explains the link between alcohol and aggression
- Taking a drug increased aggression scores in males but not females which shows that it suffers from gender bias
Role of testosterone in aggression
- Testosterone affects neural circuits before birth and these neural circuits are influenced by testosterone later in life.
- Testosterone alters the way people react to a stimulus. - -= -
- Testosterone reduces the amount of serotonin that is available for synaptic transmission.
2x strengths/ 2x weaknesses of testosterone in aggression
+ Higher levels of salivary testosterone in violent criminals than non violent criminals
+ Prac app for biological treatment that reduces testosterone levels
- Albert et al: many studies into testosterone and aggression show no correlation
- Testosterone could promote status seeking behaviour as women with high occupational status have higher testosterone levels
What is cortisol
A hormone produced by the adrenal glands in response to stress
Role of cortisol in aggression
- High levels of cortisol increase anxiety and withdrawal - resulting in individuals being less likely to engage in aggressive interactions
- High levels inhibit testosterone levels - resulting in lower aggression
evaluation of cortisol in aggression
+ Low levels of cortisol found in violent criminals and violent school children
- A study found higher levels of cortisol in participants with higher levels of aggression
- Dual hormone hypothesis may be more useful as testosterone and cortisol interact to produce aggression
Chromosomal abnormalities as an explanation for aggresion
- Aggression could lie in the Y chromosome so they examined individuals with XYY chromosomes
- Based on the idea that males are more aggressive than females
+/- chromosomal abnormalities in aggression
+ Jacobs et al: 3% of men in prison had XYY chromosome pattern
- Theilgaard: found that XYY can increase height but not aggression
What is the MAOA gene
- MAOA is a gene that produces an enzyme called MAOA
- This enzyme is responsible for breaking down a number of neurotransmitters including serotonin
- Once neurotransmission is complete, MAOA sweeps up any serotonin left in the synaptic gap
Role of MAOA gene in aggression
1.MAOA-L is associated with the production of low levels of the MAOA enzyme
2.This means that the enzyme is less effective than it should be
3.Leading to a build-up of serotonin in the synapse
MAOA-L = ↓MAOA + ↑Serotonin = Aggression
2x strengths/ 2x weaknesses of MAOA in aggression
+ Research on mice: gene deletion technique was used to knock out the MAOA gene. Knock out mice were hyper aggressive
+ Brunner et al: studied male members of a notoriously violent Dutch family. Found they had low levels of MAOA and possessed the MAOA-L gene
- Vassos: meta analysis found that no single gene is associated with aggression. Claimed hundreds of thousands of genes interact in complex ways to determine aggression (polygenic)
- Diathesis stress: genes act in conjunction with experiences
Ethological explanation of aggression
Lorenz: aggression is ritualistic and more adaptive than killing as it deters an opponent without physical harm being caused
What is an innate releasing mechanism
A built in neural structure which, when exposed to specific stimuli, will cause the release of an automatic behavioural response
What is a fixed action pattern
The aggressive behavioural response that results from the IRM
What are the features of a fixed action pattern
- Behaviour is stereotyped (always occurs in the same way)
- Behaviour is universal (all members of a species respond the same)
- Behaviour is innate and not affected by learning or experience
- Once triggered, behaviour will follow an inevitable path
- Each behaviour has a specific environmental trigger
1x Strength/ 2x weaknesses of Ethological explanation
+ Tinbergen: presented male sticklebacks with wooden models designed to resemble male (red spot on underbelly) or female (swollen bellies) sticklebacks. All male sticklebacks showed aggression towards ‘male’ sticklebacks
- Nisbett: when south American white males were more likely to respond aggressively after being insulted than white north American males under the same conditions
- Ethological approach underestimates the role of nurture in aggression. Environmental factors interact with innate factors
Two evolutionary explanations for male aggression
- Sexual competition (sexual success)
- Sexual jealousy (Reducing paternal uncertainty)
Role of sexual competition in male aggression
males who successfully used aggression to eliminate competition would’ve been more successful in acquiring mates and therefore passed on their genes
Role of sexual jealousy in male aggression
Men are at risk of expending effort in bringing up a child who does not carry their genes (being cuckolded). They display aggression in order to prevent their female partner from being unfaithful.
1x strength/ 3x weaknesses of evolutionary explanation
+ Shackleford et al: surveyed 461 men and 560 women about their use of mate retention strategies. Found a positive correlation between men’s use of mate retention strategies and their violence scores.
- Does not explain wide scale slaughter/ genocide/ torture
- Legitimates the use of aggression to prevent infidelity which is socially sensitive. Represents women in a subordinate role.
- Suffers from gender bias but women are 2x likely to murder their partners out of jealousy
Frustration aggression hypothesis
all aggression is caused buy frustration and frustration always leads to aggression
G̶O̶A̶L̶ → frustration → Aggression → catharsis
Why is aggression not always expressed towards the source of the frustration
- It is not practically possible
- We risk punishment by responding against the source
- The source is unavailable
1x strength/ 2x weaknesses of Frustration aggression hypothesis
+ Four groups completed a puzzle but had their level of frustration manipulated (impossible puzzle, continual distraction, insults, no frustration). Ppts had to deliver shocks to a confederate. Found ppts in non frustrated condition gave less shocks than ppts in other conditions
- Ppts who had to vent their aggression by hitting a punch bag became more aggressive rather than less. ppts who did nothing to vent their aggression became less aggressive.
- Does not account for individual differences as frustration does not always lead to aggression
Social learning theory in aggression
All behaviour including aggression is learned. Aggressive behaviour is acquired through observing people and noting the consequences of their behaviour.
4x cognitive conditions for aggression
- ATTENTION must be paid to role model’s aggressive behaviour
- Individual must be able to REMEMBER the behaviour in order to form a mental representation of how to perform it themselves
- They must be able to REPRODUCE the behaviour (depends on whether they believe they are capable of behaving in this way)
4.Need to be MOTIVATED to imitate the behaviour (depends on their expectation that the behaviour will bring rewards)
2x strengths/ 2x weaknesses of SLT in aggression
+Bandura: one group of children watched an adult behaving aggressively towards a bobo doll. The other group watched the adult playing nicely with it. Ppts in aggressive condition were more aggressive with the bobo doll than other children
+ Can explain cultural differences (!Kung san of Kalahari desert have low levels of aggression)
- Cannot explain reactive aggression
- Does not account for biological evidence (e.g. role of MAOA-L gene)
De individuation as an explanation for aggression
- De individuation can be triggered by being in a large crowd, wearing a uniform, or drugs and alcohol
- It generates a sense of anonymity, which is central to later aggression
- Social norms become less important when we are deindividuated
Anonymity → Deindividuation → Aggression
1x Strength/ 3x weaknesses deindividuation theory
+ Zimbardo: ppts dressed in oversized coats and hoods gave longer, more painful electric shocks than ppts wearing name badges
- Social norms associated with uniform influences behaviour: ppts wearing Ku Klux Klan masks and robes gave stronger electric shocks than those in nurse uniforms
- When deindividuated, individuals adopt the social norm of the situation they’re in (e.g. Queen’s funeral)
- Determinist: assumes individuals have no choice but to behave aggressively
Importation model
It is not the situational pressures that explain high levels of aggression but rather the disposition of the individuals within it
Irwin and Cressey - dispositional explanation
High levels of aggression in prisons are the result of prisoners bringing a subculture of typical criminality into prisons
1x strength/3x weaknesses of dispositional explanation
+ Anger, anti social personality and impulsivity were stronger predictors of aggression in prison than ethnicity or type of offence committed
- Dilulio: ignores the role played by prison officials and other factors linked to management of prisons. Poorly managed prisons = more serious inmate violence
- Gender bias: most research carried out on male prisoners
- Doesn’t account for biological evidence into aggression (e.g. XYY explanation)
Deprivation model -situational explanation
it is the harsh prison conditions that lead to stress for inmates who cope by behaving aggressively. The may gain a sense of control and be able to access desirable goods and experiences.
5x Things inmates are deprived of (Sykes)
- Liberty
- Goods and services
- Security
- Relationships
- Personal space
2x strengths/ 2x weaknesses of situational explanation
+ Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: physiological and safety needs are not met. 900 prison study - regimes that involve higher deprivation had higher rates of assault
+ Prac app: can adopt procedures that give inmates more control
- Levels of deprivation within a prison remain constant however levels of aggression vary considerably
- Fails to consider the biological reasons for aggression (diathesis stress)
5x effects of media on aggression
- Aggressive behaviour
- Aggressive thoughts
- Aggressive feelings
- Reduction in physiological responses to aggression
- Decreases pro social behaviour
Lab experiment showing the effect of TV on aggression
- Study exposed 5-6 year Finnish children to either violent or non violent films
- Found that children who watched the violent films were rated much higher on physical aggression than those who watched non violent films
Lab experiment showing the effect of computer games on aggression
- Anderson and Dill: students who played Wolfenstein 3d (violent shooting game) gave their opponents longer bursts of white noise and rated themselves higher on a hostility scale than students who played Myst (slow paced puzzle game)
Correlation showing the effect of computer games on aggression
- Gentile and Anderson: collected data from over 600 adolescents and found a positive correlation between time spent playing violent computer games and aggressive feelings, arguments with teachers, and physical fights
Longitudinal study showing the effect of computer games on aggression
- Anderson et al: surveyed 430 children aged 7-9 at two points during the academic year
- Children who had high exposure to violent computer games became more verbally and physically aggressive and less prosocial
- Ratings of the aggression and prosocial levels were provided by teachers, peers, and the children themselves
Meta- analysis showing the effect of computer games on aggression
- Anderson et al: conducted a meta analysis of 136 studies
- Found that playing violent computer games was linked to increases in aggressive behaviours, thoughts, and feelings. This was found in both males and females.
+/- lab experiments into media and aggression
+ strong cause and effect
- Problems with internal validity/ low ecological validity
+/- correlations into media and aggression
+ Realistic/ more ethical than experiments
- poor cause and effect
+/- Longitudinal studies into media and aggression
+ more realistic
- potential for attrition that would cause a skewed sample
+/- meta analyses into media and aggression
+ generalisability due to large amounts of data
- publication bias
3x reasons why the media has an effect
- Desensitisation
- Disinhibition
- Cognitive priming
Desensitisation theory
with continual exposure to a stimulus, our responses to that stimulus are decreased. Therefore, if aggression is presented to us on a daily basis, there is a reduction to our response to the aggression.
Indicators that desensitisation has occurred
Reduced activity of sympathetic branch of ANS and reduced empathy/ altered attitudes - we become habituated to violence
1x strength/ 3x weaknesses of desensitisation
+ Supporting evidence: ppts played either a violent or non violent computer game for 20 minutes and then watched a 10 minute film clip of real violence. Ppts who played violent game showed a lower heart rate while watching 10 minute clip
+ Weisz & Earls showed ppts a film with sexually violent content. Ppts then watched a re-enactment of a rape trial. Ppts exposed to graphic violence were less empathetic to rape victims and less likely to find defendant guilty
- Challenged by notion of catharsis: exposure to violence reduces aggressive drive
- Deterministic: ignores the idea of free will
Disinhibition explanation of aggression
- Restraint against behaving aggressively is reduced when exposed to violent media, which reinforces and justifies aggression
- In a computer game, there is no threat of punishment for behaving aggressively and so aggression is more likely to occur in everyday life
2x strengths/ 2x weaknesses of disinhibition in aggression
+ Berkowitz and Alioto: ppts who saw a film where violence was seen as an act of violence were more likely to later give shocks of longer duration to a confederate. When violence is sanctioned, we are more likely to act it out
+Prac app: American army using computer games as a recruiting tool
- Mixed evidence/ may not apply to all forms of media: some research found no disinhibition effects following violent TV, some has shown support for disinhibition when playing violent computer games
- Disinhibition effects only last for the period during which a computer game is played
What is Cognitive priming
the idea that being exposed to media violence creates a ‘script’ of how to deal with conflicts in everyday life. These scripts are stored in memory and retrieved and activated in real life situations
Effect of media on cognitive priming
frequent exposure to violence leads to aggressive scripts being more readily available to an individual. This makes it more likely that an individual will behave aggressively in response to an everyday situation.
2x strengths of cognitive priming
S+ fMRI scans of 8 children watching violent or non violent tv shows. Children in the violent condition showed greater activation of the brain regions associated with emotion and storage of long term personal memories.
S+ Fischer & Greitermeyer: exposed male ppts to music with misogynistic lyrics. Later they were required to meet a female confederate. When they recalled her, they recalled more negative qualities than participants exposed to neutral lyrics
C- Realism of computer game or TV is important: viewing more realistic violence has been associated with higher levels of aggressive behaviour
C- Methodological issues: can’t determine cause and effect
C- Gender bias: focuses on studying male-on-male physical violence
