Aggression (A2) PAPER 3 Flashcards
Outline evolutionary explanations of human aggression (6)
SEXUAL JEALOUSY
- major motivator of aggressive behaviour in males due to paternity uncertainty, which may lead to cuckoldry (male raising a child which is not there own)
- This is an evolutionary disadvantage as the male is wasting resources which he could have used on his own children
- male retentive strategies are adaptive because they reduce the risk of cuckoldry.
- Wilson and Daly suggested there are two types of male retention strategies: direct guarding (insisting on knowing where your partner has been and with who) and negative inducements (threats or suicide to prevent infidelity)
- Wilson et al asked women to report male retention strategies in there partners. Women who agreed with the retention statements were twice as likely to have experienced physical violence, 53% of women feared for their lives
BULLYING
- Bullying used to be thought of as the product of poor social skills or dysfunctional upbringing
- Male bullying - men who bully other men portray a power imbalance and are more likely to have there pick of resources and mating partners as there is less competition, therefore increasing chances of genes being passed on so bullying behaviour could be naturally selected
-Female bullying is most likely to occur within relationships to ensure fidelity
A03 for evolutionary explanation of human aggression
(+) provide an explanation for gender differences in aggression
- females are more likely to engage in verbal rather than physical violence to ensure their own survival and survival of there offspring is not endangered.
- prevents females from being in life threatening situations with there partners
- survival through non-aggressive methods of resolving conflict
- increases validity of evolutionary explanation of aggression
(+) Study support
- Shakleford et al
-107 married couples using questionnaires
-correlation between male retention strategies and male directed violence to there partners
- supports evolutionary explanation of male retention strategies to prevent female infidelity
(-) accused of being post-hoc
-explanations are offered 1000s of years before behaviour can be considered adaptive
-explanations impossible to falsify, a criteria needed to be veiwed as scientific, as fossil evidence cannot provide in depth meaning
Outline the frustration aggression hypothesis as an explanation of human aggression
- Dollard suggested that frustration always leads to aggression, and aggression is always the result of frustration
- When the aggressive behaviour is cathartic (removes negative emotion), we feel better as the aggressive drive is reduced.
- F-A hypothesis explains how aggression is not always expressed at the source of frustration, due to risk of punishment, so it is displaced onto a weaker and immediatley available target in order to achieve drive reduction
-THE WEAPON EFFECT: - Berkowitz did not have the same opinion as Dollard, and believed frustration only readied a person to become more aggressive, and that certain aggressive environmental cues were neeeded to initiate this reaction
- He conducted a study which found that the presence of two guns influenced ppts to administer electric shocks higher than 1.4V to confederates whod previously given them shocks, compared to the control condition of no guns
- thus the presence of aggressive environmental cues stimulates aggression
Outline what research has shown about the F-A hypothesis
- Geen et al
- male university students, 3 conditions, completing a jigsaw
- Those who were insulted by confederates whilst doing the jigsaw gave the strongest shocks, then came the inteffered group
- Those who found the jigsaw impossible gave the weakest shocks
- All three groups selected more intense shocks than a non frustrated control group
- Supports dollards idea of frustration being displaced onto other targets when aggresion cannot be immediatley reduced
A03 for F-A hypothesis
(+) Research support
- Newhall et al, meta analysis of 49 studys of displaced aggression
- Situations where aggression had to be directed towards a human target other than the one who caused the frustration
- results: they aggressed against an innocent party
- thus frustration can lead to aggression against a weaker and more available target
(-) Role of catharsis
- Aggression may not be cathartic
- Bushman found that ppts who vented their anger by repeatedly hitting a punchingbag became more aggressive rather than less
- Doing nothing was more effective at reducing aggression than venting
- Central assumption of the F-A hypothesis may not be valid
(-) Frustration aggression link
- Complex link between the two
- Early days of research show that frustration does not always lead to aggression, and likewise
- There is nothing automatic about the link
- Someone who feels frustrated may behave in a range of different ways, not just aggressive
- Thus inadequate as it only shows how aggression arises in some situations and not others
COUNTER
Berkawitz changed the inital hypothesis due to this criticism and put about the ‘negative affect theory’
- Frustration is just one of many stimuli that cause negative feelings, others include lonliness, jelousy etc
- Thus, frustration can be part of a wider explanation for the causes of aggression
Outline the social learning theory of human aggression
- Bandura suggested that learning is a social process through observation and imitation of role models
- Learning can occur directly (classical/operant) or indirectly (vicarious reinforcement
- vicarious reinforcement occurs when we see a model being rewarded for displaying certain behaviour, The observer is more likely to imitate this behvaviour as they are motivated in achieving the same reward
- Self efficiency can be used to asses how likely it is that carrying out this behaviour will result in a reward
- There are 4 cognitive conditions needed for social learning: attention (pay attention to models behaviour), retention(Remember models actions), reproduction(produce a physical action of models aggressive behaviour) and motivation (needs a reason to imitate behaviour). Demonstrates how learning and reproduction of behaviour does not need to happen at the same time.
BANDURAS BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT
- children observe and imitate behaviours from models of the same sex
- when the adult was seen by the children as beating the bobo doll with a mallet and being verbally abusive towards it, the children imitated such aggressive behaviours themselves
-children who observbed a non aggressive role model immitated non aggressive behaviour
- supports SLT as an explanation of aggression
A03 for social learning theory
(+) Research support
-Poulin and Bovlin found that aggressive boys 9-12 formed freindships with other aggressive boys.
- These friendships mutually reinforced eachothers aggressive behaviour through modelling
- there was successful observation as they used proactive aggression (to get what they want from peers)
-Thus the social learning processes made imitation more likely
COUNTER
-boys did not imitate reactive (hot-blooded) aggresion, maybe in fear of punishment
-SLT is limited as it gives a weak explanation of reactive aggression
(+) Real world application
- can help reduce aggression
- rewarded non aggressive models
- SLT offers practical steps in reducing aggressive behaviour in children
(-) Biological influences
- underestimates the influence of biological factors
- Bandura believes there is an instinctive urge to be aggressive
- However he sticks by aggression being primarily learned and that its the outcome of nurture
- SLT does not acknoledge the genetic factors therefore it is an incomplete explanation as it underplays the role of biological factors
Outline de-individuation as an explanation for aggression (6)
- De-individuation, suggested by Le Bon, is used to explain the behaviour of individuals in crowds. We feel no personal responsibilty for our actions as this responsibilty and guilt is shared among the group. We do not fear retaliation as we are just one face face in a large crowd. Anonymity means we will not face retribution or judgment from others.
- Zimbardo said how individuated behaviour is rational and normative (conforming to social norms) whilst de individuated behaviour is disinhibited and anti normative (emotional, irrational). In crowds we are in a de individuated state where we loose self awareness and stop regualting our own behaviour.
- It is the consequences of anonymity that allows us to develop private (how much we care about our own feelings and behaviour) or public (how much we care about what other people think of us) self awareness
DODDS RESEARCH INTO DE-INDIVIDUATION
-He found that when given free reign over any events and remaining anonymous whilst doing so, out of 229 undergrad students:
- 36% would behave in an antisocial manner
-26% were criminal acts, some even rape/murder
- whilst only 9% would act righteously (helping people).
- link between anonymity, de-individuation and aggressive behaviour
A03 for de-individuation
(+) practical application
- Douglas and McGarty
- Studies of chatroom activities showed that the most violent and aggressive messages were sent by those who concealed there identity
- supports idea of de individuation resulting in an diminished feeling of responsibility for ones own actions, thus an increase in aggression
(-) Too much emphasis on group dynamics and not enough on what an individual can do to reduce self awareness
- Johnson and Downing found that ppts dressed in KKK uniform were more aggressive and delivered higher intensity shocks to confederates in comparison to ppts dressed as nurses
- social roles associated through unifrom are emphasises and not lost within a group setting
Outline explanations of institutional aggression in the context of prisons
DISPOSITIONAL EXPLANATION:
-Irwin and Cressey proposed a dispositional explanation for aggression in the form of the IMPORTANCE MODEL. Model suggests how aggression is caused by individual differences between offenders rather than the prison context. This is suggested as Thomas and McManimon belived that prison offenders will behave in the same way within prisons in the real world due to their dispositions (drug abuse, childhood trauma, poverty etc). These characterstics will predispose them to use aggression to navigate their way around the prison social heirachy
- EVIDENCE - DeLisi et al found that certain dispositional traits (childhood trauma) coincided with an increased risk of violent behaviour and suicide, in a group of 813 juvenile offenders when compared to a control group. THERFORE, dispositional triats may be more important than prison environment at determining aggression
SITUATIONAL EXPLANATION:
- DEPRIVATION MODEL suggested by Clemmer, cause of instituational aggression within the prison itself. The lack of material goods (TV time) and psychological factors (sex) increases the competiton for such resources and causes disputes which are often resolved in violence.
-EVIDENCE - Steiner did a meta analysis of 512 prisons in the US found that inmate on inmate violence was more common in prisons with more female officers and overcrowding. These are prison level factors which support the situational explanation.
A03 for institutional aggression in the context of prisons
IMPORTATION MODEL
(+) Research support
- Camp and Gaes studied 561 male inmates with similar predispostions and criminal histories. Half were placed in a low securirty prison in california and the other half were in a high secuity prison.
- within 2 yrs there was barely any difference in the number of prisoners involved in aggressive misconduct
- strong support due to random allocation
(-) Ignores key factors
- Dilulio claims that the importation model ignores other factors that influence prisoners behvaiour, such as the way the prison is run
- He proposed a ACM which suggests that poorly managed prisons are more likely to have inmate violence
- importation is inadequate because instituational factors are more important
DEPRIVATION MODEL
(+) Research support
- Cunningham et al analysed 35 inmate homocides in texas prisons between 2000-2008
- motivators for prisoner violence was due to deprivations, mentioned in Clemmers model
-e.g cell sharing inmates where boundaries were said to be crossed, drugs, sexual activty etc
- These factors are found in the deprivation model so supports the models validity
(-) Contradictory research
- The model predicts that a lack of heterosexual contact (sex) should lead to high levels of aggression
- Hensley et al studied 256 male and female inmates of two prisons in missisipi, which allows conjigual visits
- there was no link between these visits and reduced aggressive behaviour
- Therfore situational factors do not affect prison violence
Outline media influences on aggression
EXCESSIVE TV VIEWING
-Robertson et al wanted to see if there was a link between excessive TV veiwing in childhood and aggression in adulthood
- 1037 people born in new zealand and measured there TV veiwing hours at regular intervals up to the age of 26
- Findings: Those who watched the most TV showed more aggressive behaviour (convictions/violent crimes)
VIOLENT FILM CONTENT
-Bandura et al replicated there earlier study but this time children watched a film of the bobo doll being beaten by an adult model
- outcomes were the same as children imitating aggressive behaviour of the model
- Social learning processes occur face to face as well as through media
TV/FILM EFFECTS NOT STRONG
-Comstock carried out a meta analysis of 200 studies and found a positive correlation between veiwing TV/film violence and anti-social behaviour.
-However they established that TV/film violence accounted for 1-10% of childrens aggressive behaviour (VERY LOW)
COMPUTER GAMES
-Computer games may have more powerful effects than traditional screen-based media becuase the player takes a more active role compared to a veiwer and game playing is more directly rewarding (operant conditioning)
-Barthalow and Anderson demostrated that by playing a violent video game (MORTAL KOMBAT) for just 10mins resulted in higher levels of aggression compared to playing nonviolent games (PGA tournement golf).
- They all carried out the TCRTT (blasts white noise at opponent) which showed that ppts in the violent group delivered sounds of more than 1.37 decibels greater than the non violent group.
A03 for media influences on aggression
(+) study support
- Anderson et al, meta anlaysis, 136 studies determining aggression in different ways.
-The research found that exposure to violent video games was associated in an increase of aggression, for both men and women.
-high in validity
(-) There isnt a consistent way to measure aggression
- The dependent variable in various studies are varied. in Bathalow and Andersons study its a blast of white noise to an imaginary victim, in Robertson et als study, its criminal convictions
- All violence is aggression but not all aggression is violence or criminal
- this study depends on how aggression is defined therefore studies lack reliability
(-) methedologically weak
- meta analyses are not necessarily guaranteed to be useful because if the data studied is poor, so will the findings of the studies
- many studies are correlationsla so cause and effect is unjustified
- experimental studies cant be genralised to the real world
- therefore such explanations are low in validity
Outline desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming in aggression
ROLE OF DESENSITISATION
-Desensitisation is the consequence of repeated exposure to aggressive acts, particularly in the media. This causes individuals to be less empathetic towards victims and accepts aggresion as the ‘social norm’.
- This idea was suported by Funk et al who was concerned aba the increasingly common trend in the media to minimise the consequences of aggression.
- An increasing tolerance towards aggression was shown by Weisz and Earls who found that men who watched the film Straw Dogs (includes graphic rape scenes) were less likely to find the defendant guilty whne watching a rape trial reinactment
ROLE OF DISINHIBITION
- Disinhibition is the process of lowering our restraints towards aggression through direct or indirect learning during the process of social learning
- new social norms towards aggression due to the media minimising its negative consequences
ROLE OF COGNITIVE PRIMING
- Huesmann suggested that cognitive priming is , through repeated veiwing of aggressive media, can provide us with a script of how violent a situation can play out
- the changes in memory mean we anticipate the consequences of aggression
-Fischer and greitemeyer found that male ppts who listened to aggressive songs on degrading women were more likely to be aggressive to female confederates
- therefore, media may cognitively prime audeinces to develop an increasing tolerence towards violence
A03 for desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming
(+) Support for desensitisation
- Krahe demonstrated that individuals who had a history of watching regualr aggressive acts on TV experienced more positive arousal then negative arousal when watching examples of aggressive media in a lab experiment compared to those without such regular viewing
- Thus, being less empathetic
(+) real word application
- an improved understanding of cognitive priming may increase the effectiveness of treatments towards disinhibition towards aggression
- Bushman and Anderson suggested that regularly watching violent media reinforces the cognitive scripts within the brain, causing permanant changes in our memory, causing us to sympathise less with victims
- by challenging these cognitive scripts, we are more likely to combat these changing social norms towards aggression
(-) Lack of evidence to show how children learn violence
- e.g cartoon violence as most children understand that it is not possible to punch someone so that there eyes burst out
- Krahe suggested that children observe that these aggressive acts are not punished so they prepare there own cognitive scrips on what is socially acceptable behvaiour
