Aggression

Question 1

What you need to know

Answer 1

Aggression

• Explanations of aggression:
  
  • biological, including the role of hormones, brain disease and chromosomal abnormality.
  • psychodynamic, including the frustration-aggression hypothesis.
  • social learning, including modelling, punishment and monitoring.
• Description and evaluation of studies of the development of aggressive behaviour.
• Ways of reducing aggression, based on these explanations.
• Evaluation of these ways of reducing aggression.

Question 2

What is Aggression?

Answer 2

The definition of aggression is:

Behaviour aimed at harming others

Aggression is antisocial behaviour: behaviour that harms, or intends to harm. Aggression can be verbal as well as physical and can stem for several different causes.

Question 3

What are the 3 theories of aggression?

Answer 3

• Social learning theory
• The biological explanation
• The psychodynamic explanation

Question 4

What is the Biological Explanation:

Answer 4

This can mean that Aggression is innate /we are born aggressive or we have a significant biological change such as brain disease

Researchers have looked at the role of [BCH]

• The Brain
• Chromosomes
• Hormones

on aggression and behaviour.

Question 5

Definitions brain

Answer 5

LIMBIC SYSTEM - The part of the brain that causes aggressive behaviour

PREFRONTAL CORTEX - The very front of the brain. It’s involved in social and moral behaviours and controls aggression

BRAIN DISEASE - Damage to the brain caused by illness or trauma

Question 6

Biological Explanation

The Brain

Answer 6

Aggression is caused by an interaction of different parts of the brain.

Aggression (like other instinctive behaviours) seems to be associated with the LIMBIC SYSTEM. This is the part of the brain that influences things like eating, sexual behaviour and aggression.

The part of the brain that controls these behaviours and STOPS us from being aggressive is the PREFRONTAL CORTEX. This is highly involved in learning. It knows when instinctive behaviour is appropriate or not.

BRAIN DISEASE affecting either the PREFRONTAL CORTEX or the LIMBIC SYSTEM may lead to abnormally high levels of aggression.

So in summary -

LIMBIC SYSTEM - Aggression, eating, sex behaviour. PREFRONTAL COTREX: Involved in learning. Stops inappropriate behaviour. Damage to the

LIMBIC SYSTEM or PREFRONTAL CORTEX = high levels of aggression

Question 7

Label the amygdala on a picture of the brain

Answer 7

Question 8

Case study Charles Whitman

Answer 8

• In 1966 Charles Whitman shot his mother and wife and then climbed a clock tower at the university of Texas and shot 12 more people with a high powered rifle.
• He was killed by Texas Rangers Police.
• Prior to this he asked for help dealing with overwhelming violent impulses and asked for an autopsy to be carried out after he died to see what was wrong.
• The autopsy revealed a tumour pressing against his ‘amygdala’ which is part of the limbic system. This is the part of the brain that causes aggressive behaviour.

[more info on his history: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whitman]

Question 9

Biological explanation of aggression:

Chromosomal abnormality

Answer 9

CHROMOSOMES - The parts of each cell that carry the genetic info from our biological parents

• Chromosomes are made of DNA and code for why we are the way we are.
• If there is damage on the chromosomes we may suffer physical or psychological problems.
• XYY syndrome is an extra Y chromosome on the 23rd pair as it fails to divide.
• When the 23rd chromosome (the sex chromosome) fails to divide, some men end up with an XYY arrangement. This is called Chromosomal abnormality. It has certain effects including making men more aggressive than normal.
• Backed up by findings
• VIOLENT CRIMINALS = higher than normal proportion of men with XYY chromosomes than in wider population
• However more recent research has shown that it’s not quite this simple. Men with XYY chromosomes have a difficult time in adolescence due to increase likelihood of acne, learning difficulties and delayed language development (could lead to bullying).

Question 10

Biological explanation of aggression:

Hormones

Answer 10

HORMONES are chemicals revealed by our endocrine system that affect how our bodies function and how we behave

• Men are widely accepted to be more aggressive than females.
• There are large differences in the hormones of men and women
• Men have more TESTOSTERONE than women therefore this is thought to be the cause of more aggression in men.
• This is supported by FINDINGS – violent criminals have more testosterone than non-violent criminals

Summary:

Men = more aggressive than women

Men = more testosterone than women

CORRELATION: Testosterone – aggression

Backed up by Findings: VIOLENT CRIMINALS = More TESTOSTERONE than non- violent criminals

(Serotonin is another hormone that has been linked to aggression. Researchers have found that lower serotonin levels leads to higher levels of aggression.)

Question 11

Psychodynamic Explanation

Freud

Answer 11

• The main focus of this is that aggression is innate, we are born with it.
• This was proposed by Freud who suggested that we have an unconscious drive that causes aggression.
• Our aggressive behaviour is caused by an internal force or instinct which he called THANATOS
• THANATOS - the part of our unconscious that causes our aggressive drive
• It is this that drives us to self-destruction.
• This instinct is building all the time creating pressure [remember the saucepan] until sooner or later we cannot control it and it makes us do something aggressive.
• We protect ourselves from our instinct towards self-destruction by using - EGO DEFENCE MECHANISMS (displacement and sublimation)

Question 12

Ego defense mechanisms - Freud

Answer 12

Ego defence mechanisms definition:

Behaviour strategies used by the individual to protect ourselves.

Freud proposed a number of ego-defence mechanisms to cope with the anxiety:

• Displacement - Transferring negative feelings toward something that will not harm us (i.e. shouting at someone who hasn’t done anything to us when we’re angry about something else)
• Sublimation - Channelling negative energies into an acceptable activity (i.e. sport – an aggression outlet)

Question 13

Dollard frustration-aggression hypothesis

Answer 13

• Dollard agreed with Freud that we have an aggressive drive building up inside us (Thanatos)
• but disagreed that it would suddenly spill over into aggressive behaviour for no reason.
• He said it needs a trigger.
• He proposed the ‘Frustration-aggression Hypothesis’. This basically means that aggression is caused by frustration. So anyone frustrated will behave aggressively.
• Can be everyday things that frustrate us - an argument, being late etc.
• This explanation argues that aggression may be directed onto a target other than the cause of frustration.

Question 14

Social Learning Explanation

Explain Imitation

and Vicarious Learning + Reinforcement

Answer 14

The main focus of this is that aggression is learned behaviour.

As we encounter new situations we look to others for guidance of how to behave and we copy it. This is called

IMITATION - copying the behaviour of a model

VICARIOUS LEARNING - learning to imitate by observation (e.g. a young child imitating a role model by swearing)

For children there are lots of new situations so they look to adults for how to behave. We can learn just by watching what others are doing.

VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT- learning from role models being rewarded or punished.

If children see a role model being reinforced for doing something e.g. being aggressive it creates the expectation that they will be reinforced in the same way. E.g. watching a film in which the hero defeats the villain by hitting him. A child might learn from this that hitting people is a successful way of getting what you want. As a result aggressive behaviour has been learned.

Question 15

Social Learning Explanation

* Modelling

Answer 15

MODELLING -

a role model provides an example for a child.

Children are more likely to imitate models if they are:

• similar
• attractive
• powerful
• caring
• and crucially if they are REINFORCED for doing something (even with negative reinforcement)

Question 16

* Explain Punishment

Social Learning Theory

Answer 16

PUNISHMENT - a stimulus that weakens behaviour because it’s unpleasant and we try to avoid it

The implication of children copying what they see is that the punishment can actually have the opposite effect. Parents are role models and children copy them.

If a child is hit by their parent they are more likely to hit others. This means that the parent - the role model - is unintentionally teaching the child aggressive behaviour.

Question 17

* Explain Monitoring

Social Learning Theory

Answer 17

MONITORING - judging whether our own behaviour is appropriate or not

People monitor their own behaviour all the time.

Bandura (1963) also found reinforcement can be internal i.e. Pride or self-praise. We judge our own behaviour. So for example if we feel good about acting aggressively we will do it again

Question 18

Definitions

Social Learning theory of aggression

Answer 18

IMITATION - copying the behaviour of a model

VICARIOUS LEARNING - learning to imitate by observation

MODELLING a role model provides an example for a child.

VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT- learning from role models being rewarded or punished.

MONITORING - judging whether our own behaviour is appropriate or not

PUNISHMENT - a stimulus that weakens behaviour because it’s unpleasant and we try to avoid it

Question 19

Biological investigations into the causes of aggression

Answer 19

Initially research into the development of aggression was carried out on animals because of the fact it was impossible to manipulate hormones and explore the brains of Humans.

e.g. _Young et al w_ho studied monkeys

However, science has progressed and developed techniques that allow us to study the human brain directly.

e.g. Raine who studies differences between the brains of murderers and non-murderers. He wanted to know if murderers’ brains functioned differently and if this might be why they’re aggressive.

Question 20

Young study

Biological investigation

Answer 20

Aim: To see what effect hormones have on aggressive behaviour.

Method: Young injected pregnant rhesus monkeys with testosterone and observed the levels of aggression in their offspring as they matured.

Results: The high levels of testosterone during pregnancy made the females grow up to behave like male monkeys –

• engaged in rough-and-tumble play
• challenged the males for dominance in their troop.

Conclusion: Testosterone DOES seem to play a vital part in aggressive behaviour.

Question 21

Young Evaluation

Answer 21

Strength

Although an early study, Young’s research does lend support to the theory that hormones play a large part in the development of aggression

Weakness

It is problematic though to generalise these studies of non-human animals to humans as there are physiological and psychological differences

Question 22

Raine study

Biological investigations

Answer 22

Aim: To investigate the brains of murderers

Method: Researchers gave 41 murderers in California a PET Scan and compared them with a similar group of non-murderers.

Result: There were some differences, for example activity in the pre frontal cortex of the murderers was lower than in non-murderers.

Conclusion: When the prefrontal cortex (and other parts of the brain) is not working normally, it can lead to people committing violent crimes.

_{* PET SCAN -a technique to show how the brain is working by imaging it while the patient is carrying out a mental task}

Question 23

Evaluation Raine

Answer 23

Strength:

This study is highly scientific (for example it is replicable, objective, value-free and standardised).

Weakness:

When the participants of a study are all violent offenders we have to be careful about applying the conclusions to the rest of the population

Question 24

Psychodynamic / other investigations

Answer 24

The frustration-aggression theory was investigated by Barker. Results indicated that frustration does increase frustration

Freud’s theory of aggression has been much harder to support. However there is some supporting evidence for the aggressive drive theory of aggression from people who had been unable to stop themselves from becoming aggressive

eg Megargee and Mendelsohn

Question 25

Barker study

Answer 25

Aim: To see the effect of frustration on aggressive behaviour.

Method: Children were kept waiting a long time before being allowed to play in a room full of attractive toys.

Their behaviour was then observed.

Results: The children were more aggressive and destructive than other children who had not been frustrated by being kept waiting.

Conclusion: Being frustrated does lead to an increase in aggression.

Question 26

Barker Evaluation

Answer 26

• It’s hard to standardise frustration – What’s frustrating to one person may not be for another.
• There are ethical issues to consider when researching children. Initially denying the children access to the toys might have caused some distress (albeit probably minimal). This needs to be balanced out with the benefits of the research. Debriefing the children well after the research could have been an important lesson for them.

Question 27

Mergargee and Mendelsohn study

Answer 27

Aim: To see if there is a link between aggression and personality type.

Method: People who had committed brutally aggressive crimes were interviewed and given personality tests.

Results: These criminals seemed to have been ‘over controlled’ and repressed their anger until it built up to such an extent that it just exploded following something really trivial.

Conclusion: If people do not let their aggressive instinct out in small amounts from time to time, the build-up will be so great that they will not be able to control it.

*_{REPRESS - keep our emotions under very tight control and not express how we’re feeling}

Question 28

Evaluation Megargee and Mendelsohn

Answer 28

Strength

• This study supports Freud’s theory of aggression.
• The results to M and Ms study have intuitive appeal. We can apply it to our own experiences of holding in anger and then getting triggered by something seemingly trivial

Weakness

• We must remember thought that people can lie in interviews and personality tests
• If the participants are violent offenders we have to be careful about applying a conclusion to the rest of the population.
• It’s hard to standardise frustration – What’s frustrating to one person may not be for another.

Question 29

Social Learning investigations - intro

Answer 29

• An important piece of research was carried out in 1963 by Bandura to see if children would IMITATE what they see. He constructed an experiment in a laboratory using an adult ROLE MODEL and a ‘bobo doll’

_{(BOBO DOLL - <em><strong>an inflatable doll of about 1.5 metres tall that is weighted at the bottom. It is designed to jump back up when it is knocked over.)</strong></em>}

• Further research on social learning explanations for aggression was conducted by Liebert and Baron who wanted to know if watching violent TV affected the aggression of children. He found that the group who watched the violent programme were more aggressive and that therefore watching violent TV does increase levels of aggression.
• there is contradictory evidence from Charlton et al though. They found that there was no effect

Question 30

Bandura study

Answer 30

Aim: To see if young children would imitate aggressive behaviour they see role models performing towards an inflatable ‘bobo’ doll

Method: Researchers divided 96 children between the ages of 3 and 6 into 4 groups, three of which were shown an adult behave aggressively towards (kicking, throwing and punching) a large inflatable doll

Results: the children who had witnessed the aggressive behaviour showed more aggressive behaviour than the children in the group that had seen none

Conclusion: children will copy how they see others behave - the aggressive bevaviour of role models

Question 31

Bandura Evaluation

Answer 31

Strengths

• This study does seem to show that children’s aggressive behaviour IS affected by what they see.
• It is a laboratory experiment - all variables controlled as much as possible

Weaknesses

• But Lab based research doesn’t reflect what happens outside ie if parents see aggressive behaviour they may explain to the child that it’s wrong. After all when a child is young, parents are more influential than other role models
• Also arguably demand characteristics effected the results. One child was heard saying to her parent: “look Mummy. There’s the doll we’re supposed to kick.”
• There is also contradictory evidence concering the effect of watching aggressive behaviour. The St Helena project found that observing more violence does NOT have any impact on aggressive behaviour in children.

Question 32

Liebert and Baron study

Answer 32

Aim: To see if watching violent TV programmes had any effect on aggressive behaviour in children.

Method:

• One group of children was shown a quite violent TV programme
• Another group of children was shown an equally exciting sporting event.
• The 2 groups were then observed at play

Results:

The group who had watched the violent programme were more aggressive than the group who had watched the sporting programme.

Conclusion: Watching violence on TV increases the level of aggression in children’s behaviour.

Question 33

Evaluation Liebert and Baron

Answer 33

Strength

Lab based experiment. Scientific and greater control over the variables

Weaknesses

• There is contradictory evidence from Charlton et al about watching TV and Aggression. They used The Island of St Helena to see what affect the introduction of TV would have on a community (2 year study)
• They found merely watching aggressive role models was not sufficient to make a child copy aggressive behaviour
• Liebert and Baron conducted a Lab experiment - low in Ecological Validity in comparison with Charlton’s study which was recorded in their normal surroundings. We can be fairly confident therefore that their behaviour was natural.

Question 34

Charlton study

[know this only as part of your evaluation of Liebert and Baron}

Answer 34

Aim: To see if the introduction of television (and therefore aggressive role models) to a community would affect the aggressive behaviour of children

Method: For two years after the Island of St. Helena first received television transmissions, the behaviour of the children was monitored

Results: The children did not show an increase in aggressive behaviour after television was introduced compared to before it was introduced

Conclusion: Merely watching aggressive role models will not be sufficient to make children copy aggressive behaviour

Question 35

Charlton Evaluation

Answer 35

Strength:

• A positive criticism of this study is that it has high ecological validity. This is because it took place over a two year period, and the children’s behaviour was recorded in their normal surroundings. We can be fairly confident therefore that their behaviour was so natural

Weakness:

There is contradictory evidence to this study. Such as that of Bandura and Liebert and Baron which suggests that observing violence does result in increased aggression in children

Question 36

How do we reduce aggression - Biological

Answer 36

The biological approach believes that since aggressive behaviour is caused by biological factors, the way to reduce it must be to focus on biology too. For example:

• Surgery
• Drugs

Question 37

Psychosurgery - the brain

Biological means of reducing aggression

Answer 37

PSYCHOSURGERY: an operation on the brain to remove or destroy the part that is causing abnormal behaviour

• Method that deals with brain disease by either removing or destroying parts of the brain that are not working properly.
• This can be done by inserting a probe into a precise location and heating up the end to kill nerves
• Surgery is usually carried out on the Limbic system because research has shown the limbic system to be responsible for aggressive behaviour.
• it has been reported as successfully reducing violent behaviour in patients.
• However it may affect other functions as well i.e. the ability to read emotional cues or to understand dangerous situations.
• This is a last resort – once brain tissue has been destroyed it will not grow back. This means that if a mistake is made in the operation its permanent. This is why this is not used very often.

Question 38

Using Drugs

Biological means of reducing aggression

Answer 38

One way of reducing aggression according to the Biological Method is through the use of drugs. This is the case with Attention deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD):

_{ADHD = a disorder characterised by short attention span, poor concentration and uncontrollable aggressive outbursts}

• Part of ADHD is aggressive behaviour
• ADHD is often controlled by the drug Ritalin
• It has been found that Ritalin which stimulates ACTIVITY in the brain does reduce aggressive behaviour caused by ADHD.
• This is because when the PREFRONTAL CORTEX is stimulated it is able to control aggressive instincts caused by the LIMBIC SYSTEM.

_{* RITALIN - a drug used to control Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)}

Question 39

Evaluation of Biological methods of reducing aggression

Answer 39

Theory in general:

• It is not fully understood what parts of the brain are involved in aggression or the processes involved so it’s difficult to devise treatments for specific problems.

Drug use – Ritalin for ADHD (through activating the prefrontal cortex)

Advantages

• Drugs may work in reducing aggressive behaviour allowing the patient to have a more normal life.
• Ritalin for example reduces aggressive behaviour by stimulating the prefrontal cortex which is able to control aggressive instincts caused by the Limbic system

Disadvantages

• These drugs may cause negative side effects for example drowsiness, inability to concentrate etc. This may lead to deterioration in other aspects of the person’s social life and health

Psychosurgery

Operation on the limbic system

Advantages

• Psychosurgery has been successful in reducing aggressive behaviour in very violent people

Disadvantages

• However, it may affect other functions as well i.e. the ability to read emotional cues or to understand dangerous situations.
• Psychosurgery is a very extreme form or treatment and raises major ethical concerns, for example, a patient’s right to protection from harm must be carefully balanced with the potential benefits of the treatment
• This is a last resort – once brain tissue has been destroyed it will not grow back. This means that if a mistake is made in the operation it’s permanent. This is why this is not used very often.

Question 40

Psychodynamic methods of reducing aggression

- Freud

Answer 40

• Freud suggested that we redirect our aggressive instincts into other activities using our Ego Defence Mechanisms such as SUBLIMATION

_{<strong>SUBLIMATION</strong> = <em><strong>Channelling negative energies into an </strong></em>acceptable / safe activity (e.g.sports)}

• According to Freud’s theory CATHARSIS can also reduce aggression.

_{<strong>CATHARSIS <em>= The process of getting rid of your emotions by </em></strong>watching other people experiencing emotion}

Freud adopted the idea from playwrights in ancient Greece, that it was a good thing to watch murders and other unpleasant things in plays, in order to ‘get it out of their system’.

In the modern day, therefore Freud’s theory would suggest it is a good thing to watch violence on television and films because it is cathartic - it gets aggressive instincts out of your system

Question 41

Frustration-aggression means of reducing aggression

Answer 41

• The Frustration-aggression theory suggests that since it is frustration that causes an outburst of aggressive behaviour, the best way to reduce aggression is to avoid situations that cause frustration.

Question 42

Evaluation of Psychodynamic approach of reducing aggression

Answer 42

Freud

Catharsis – _{Purging your emotions by watching other people’s emotions}

• Watching something intense and violent could be a useful outlet
• Contradicted by other evidence that watching violence can increase aggression (social learning theory)

Freud

Sublimation - _{Channelling negative energies into an acceptable activity like a sport will reduce the build up of aggression making it less likely to have an aggressive outburst.}

• [strength] It seems that people CAN be taught to reduce aggression by directing it towards a ‘safe object’
• However [weakness] some research contradicts the benefits of sports on aggression. E.g. In R. Arms Study participants who watched football and wrestling reported increased feelings of hostility whereas others watching swimming events didn’t.
• [weakness] Biological research also shows that sports can increase aggression. E.g. if your sports team loses it has been shown that there is a surge of testosterone that will cause aggression in men

Dollard

Reducing frustration

_{(According to the principles of Dollard’s frustration-aggression hypothesis)}

• [strength] There is some evidence that being frustrated can lead to aggressive acts. Therefore reducing frustration could reduce aggression
• [weakness] Unfortunately though if the best way to reduce aggression is to avoid frustration this will prove very difficult in real life because we cannot totally avoid or control frustrating events and circumstances in our lives

Question 43

How do we reduce aggression

Social Learning methods

Answer 43

Social Learning theory involves the use of imitation of role models so it would suggest that we:

• reduce exposure to aggressive role models, increase exposure to non-aggressive role models [MODELLING]
• see aggressive role models being punished for their behaviour.[PUNISHMENT] This was tested byBandura.
• People monitor their behaviour and judge whether what they (and others) are doing is good or bad. SL suggests that it is possible to reduce aggression by getting people to think differently about how to behave. [MONITORING] Huesman investigated this theory

Question 44

Observing aggressive role models being punished (through Vicarious Reinforcement)

as a means of reducing aggression

- Bandura

Answer 44

Aim: To see if observing a role model being punished would reduce the chance of aggression being copied

Method: Children were shown an adult model either

• being punished
• or reinforced

for acting aggressively

Results: Those children who saw the model being punished were less aggressive themselves than those who saw the model reinforced

Conclusion: if children see that aggression brings a punishment, they will not copy it.

Question 45

Monitoring

as a means of reducing aggression

Huesman study

Answer 45

Aim: To see if teaching children to think more carefully about what they see would reduce aggression

Method: 1 group of children were taught to realise that

• what happens on television is not real. The camera sometimes depicts things that do not happen,
• people mostly use non-violent methods of resolving problems.
• Compared with a control group of children who did not receive any training

Results: The children who received training showed less aggression than the other group

Conclusion: aggression will be reduced by making children think about how they behave so that role models on television become less influential

Question 46

Evaluation

Social Learning methods of reducing aggression

Answer 46

General

• Overemphasis on the influence of the environment and experience and underestimates the biological factors
• Doesn’t allow for the human ability to reason or consider moral issues. (Think of the effect of the media without this!)
• Most of these studies are carried out in a lab so can the results really be put in everyday life? (Low Ec Val)

Modelling

- reducing aggressive role models in a child’s life to reduce imitation

• This would be the simplest way to reduce aggression because children readily copy role models e.g. Reducing children’s exposure to media
• It’s unrealistic that children will never be exposed to aggressive role models in the society we live in
• The media is sometimes blamed for providing models for aggressive behaviour but they also provide non-aggressive models. E.g. investigation of behaviour of children after watching sesame street showed that the children’s helpfulness and sharing behaviour increased.

Punishment

- of role models for aggressive acts so that the child learns to reduce aggression through vicarious reinforcement

• It does seem from studies such as Bandura’s that if children see that aggression brings a punishment they will not copy it
• However if the children themselves were reinforced for being aggressive, they all copied the aggression they had seen earlier. This suggests that children will copy anyway if they think they will get away with no punishment
• The role of punishment in reducing aggression is complex. An adult using an aggressive method to punished a child i.e. hitting them is modelling aggressive behaviour which children could imitate.

Monitoring

- Providing Explanations and training to children about aggression so that they make more informed choices through self monitoring

• People monitor their behaviour so social learning theory would suggest that it is possible to reduce aggression by getting people to think differently. Huesman et al found that aggression was reduced when children were made to think about how they behave so that role models on TV became less influential
• The problem with applying this training to real life (outside the experiment) is that many parents would have difficulty explaining such psychological ideas to their children. They may not have the training or the concepts to teach this to children.
• Also parents aren’t always there when their children watch TV to discuss the programmes afterwards.

Question 47

All definitions Aggression

Answer 47

AGGRESSION - Behaviour aimed at harming others

LIMBIC SYSTEM - The part of the brain that causes aggressive behaviour

PREFRONTAL CORTEX - The very front of the brain. IS involved in social and moral behaviours and controls aggression

BRAIN DISEASE - Damage to the brain caused by illness or trauma

HORMONES - Chemicals revealed by our endocrine system that affect how our bodies function and how we behave

CHROMOSOMES - The parts of each cell that carry the genetic info from our biological parents

THANATOS - The part of our unconscious that causes our aggressive drive

EGO DEFENCE MECHANISMS- Behaviour strategies used by the individual to protect ourselves.

PET SCAN -a technique to show how the brain is working by imaging it while the patient is carrying out a mental task

REPRESS - keep our emotions under very tight control and not express how we’re feeling

IMITATION - copying the behaviour of a model

VICARIOUS LEARNING - learning to imitate by observation

MODELLING a role model provides an example for a child.

VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT- learning from role models being rewarded or punished.

MONITORING - judging whether our own behaviour is appropriate or not

PUNISHMENT - a stimulus that weakens behaviour because it’s unpleasant and we try to avoid it

BOBO DOLL - an inflatable doll of about 1.5 metres tall that is weighted at the bottom. It is designed to jump back up when it is knocked over

ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD) = a disorder characterised by short attention span, poor concentration and uncontrollable aggressive outbursts

RITALIN - a drug used to control Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

PSYCHOSURGERY - an operation on the brain to remove or destory the part that is causing abnormal behaviour

CATHARSIS - The process of getting rid of your emotions by wathcing other people experiencing emotion

SUBLIMATION = Channelling negative energies into an acceptable / safe activity (e.g.sports)