Aggression

Question 1

what is aggression and its different types?

Answer 1

• an act carried out with the intention to harm another person
  PROACTIVE AGGRESSION- planned aggression
  REACTIVE AGGRESSION- impulsive, followed by physiological arousal.

Question 2

what is the role of the limbic system in aggression?

Answer 2

• a collection of subcortical structures made up of the amygdala, cingulate gyrus and the hypothalamus.
  AMYGDALA- attaches emotional significance to sensory information.
• abnormal activity could lead to emotion like rage/anger being perceived more readily (reactive aggression)
  GOSPIC ET AL: had ppts play an aggressive task. a confederate would offer to split money in a fair on unfair way. the unfair proposal led to aggressive provocation and when ppts rejected the offer they observed a fast and heightened activation of the amygdala.
  CINGULATE GYRUS: responsible for focusing attention onto emotionally significant events
  HYPOTHALAMUS: responsible for the regulation of the ANS
  damage could results in disproportionate reactions to stimuli (reactive aggression)

Question 3

what is the role of serotonin in aggression?

Answer 3

NT, has an inhibitory affect of neuronal firing (dampens neuronal activity)
normal levels of serotonin in the Orbital Frontal Cortex (OFC) is linked to more self control.
decreased serotonin may lead to more impulsive behaviour.

Question 4

what is the role of frontal cortexes in aggression

Answer 4

COCCORRO ET AL: found that the OFC was involved in aggression
REDUCED ACTIVITY IN OFC > LESS SELF CONTROL> MORE AGGRESION

PRE FRONTAL CORTEX: involved in planning and anticipation of reward.
has connections to the limbic system- inhibits functioning of the amygdala
damage reduces inhibition of amygdala
RAINE ET AL: used a sample of 41 violent offenders and found the majority of them had low activity in the PFC

Question 5

neural explanation of aggression AO3

Answer 5

+ SUPPORTING RESEARCH FROM RAINE ET AL
supports role of PFC in aggression and uses a sample of previously aggressive people (not aggression induced by a lab game) giving it external validity
- : BIOLOGICALLY DETERMINIST
suggests our behaviour is entirely controlled by neuronal activity/structure
poses the question of the ethics of punishing people for aggression.
T= although it has supporting research, it is socially sensitive

+: RESEARCH SUPPORTING ROLE OF SEROTONIN FROM VIRKKUNEN ET AL
found lower levels of serotonin and serotonin breakdown product in aggressive offenders compared to non aggressive offenders - negative correlation
- external validity
-: CAUSE AND EFFECT CANNOT BE CONCLUDED AS VARIABLES ARE NOT MANIPULATED- aggressive behaviour could lead to reduced serotonin
the lack of objectivity in the nature of this relationship limits its applicability
+: RESEARCH FROM BERMAN SUPPORTS CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP
gave ppts either a placebo drug, or paroxetine, which enhances serotonin levels.
had ppts play an aggressive lab game where they could give and receive shock.
ppts who had paroxetine gave less intense shocks but ONLY IF THEY HAD A HISTORY OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR, suggesting that drugs corrected levels of serotonin in aggressive ppts.

-: BIOLOGICALLY REDUCITONIST
breaks aggressive behaviour down to the most constituent biological parts and ignores social context in which aggressive behaviour would occur.
knowing about the neural underpinnings tells us little about why people choose to act aggressively (e.g., whether cultural norms permit aggressive behaviour)
. finger pointing analogy.
by not evaluating the cause of aggression at a higher level of explanation, the explanation lacks external validity and complexity.

Question 6

explain the role of hormones in aggression

Answer 6

TESTOSTERONE: men are generally more aggressive than females, and get more aggressive during development (20y), when testosterone levels are highest
testosterone is an androgen- it is responsible for the development of masculine features and regulating social behaviour
higher levels of testosterone may increase aggression

Question 7

evaluate the hormonal explanation for aggression

Answer 7

+ RESEARCH SUPPORTING ROLE OF TESTOSTERONE FROM GIAMMANCO ANIMAL STUDIES
in male Rhesus monkeys there was an increase in aggressive behaviour and testosterone levels during mating season (most competition within species)
we cannot conclude causation with this study
he also found that in rats, the castration of males reduced testosterone and observed aggression, but injecting female mice with testosterone increased mouse killing behaviour in them
. this supports a casual explanation between testosterone and aggression.
-: EXTRAPOLATION FROM ANIMALS TO HUMANS
humans have a larger degree of high order thinking than animals, as well as more complex social structures (Like systems of laws and punishment that inhibit aggression) which may affect how aggressive behaviour is shown. these social structures means humans have to think more carefully and rationally about their behaviour, which could undermine the effect that testosterone has. so these animal studies lack population validity
T= HORMONAL EXPLANATION OF AGGRESSION MAY NOT BE GENERALISABLE TO HUMANS

-: RESEARCH SUPPORTING MORE COMPLEX AGGRESSION SYSTEMS IN HUMANS
Carve and Mehta found that higher levels of testosterone led to increased aggression but only if level of cortisol was low as well.
cortisol has a major role in the body’s response to stress and high levels can block testosterone’s affect on aggression
this undermines the importance of testosterone, and shows that the hormonal explanation is much more complex than initially presented.
-:BIOLOGICALLY REDUCTIONIST.
. reduces behaviour down to fundamental biological components, ignoring the social context in which behaviour occurs.
knowing the hormonal underpinnings of aggression tells us little about why people choose to act aggressively in specific situations.
. finger pointing analogy.
. explanation lacks external validity by not taking a higher level of explanation.
T= THE HORMONAL EXPLANATION IS NOY YET FULLY DEVELOPED AND LACKS COMPLEXITY DUE TO PARSIMONIOUS PRINCIPLES

+: SUPPRTING RESEARCH FROM MEHTA AND JOSEPHS
measured testosterone levels in males before and after taking part in an aggressive game. they could either re-challenge or choose a non aggressive task
73% of ppts whose testosterone levels rose chose to re-challenge.
-: BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM
. moral culpability
T= despite research supporting validity, we need to consider the ethical implications of the explanation.

Question 8

genetic explanation of aggression AO1

Answer 8

we can inherit genes that make us more likely to display aggressive behaviour
twin studies are used to look at the genetic cause of aggression.
if MZ twins have higher aggressive similarity than DZ twins it suggests a genetic cause, since they share 100% of DNA

MAOA gene is linked to aggression.
- determines the production of the MAOA enzyme, whose job it is to ‘mop up’ NTs
- it breaks down NTs, including serotonin, into its component chemicals to be recycled or excreted.
- a dysfunction of the MAOA gene may lead to abnormal activity of MAOA enzyme, leading to abnormal levels of NTs

one variant of the MAOA gene has been associated with low MAOA activity and aggressive behaviour
BRUNNER ET AL: analysed 28 males how were all part of the same Dutch family and had been involved in aggressive acts, and they all had low MAOA activity in their brain.

Question 9

genetic explanation of aggression AO3

Answer 9

+: RESEARCH SUPPORT FROM COCCORRO ET AL
compared MZ and DZ twins. he examined for concordance of criminal behaviour.
MZ twins had 50% concordance and DZ twins at 19%
this suggests that aggressive behaviour is largely attributed to genes since MZ twins had significantly higher concordance than DZ twins
-: CANNOT ISOLATE NATURE FROM NURTURE A
twin studies assume the the effects of nurture are the same on each set of twins.
MZ twins are identical, DZ don’t always looks similar. identical twins are more likely to share environment to a greater extent, for example, they may have the same friends, and the may be enrolled into the same hobbies by their parents, and they would be treated more similarly than DZ twins
this means DZ twins may have more individual/different personalities compared to MZ, as they would be treated more separately
this reduces the internal validity of twin studies as we cannot isolate the influence of genes from enviro.
T= CONCORDANCE RATES ARE INFLATES AND GENETIC INFLUENCES OF AGGRESSION MIGHT BE OVERSTATED BY TWIN STUDIES.

+: SUPPORTING RESEARCH FROM GODAR ET AL
manipulated genes in mice- knocked out MAOA genes which led to abnormally high levels of serotonin which led to increased aggression.
-: EXTRAPOLATION (complex social structures)- NOT GENERALISABLE

-: DETERMINISM - genetic explanation is especially socially sensitive, due to Mobley defence, who received a lower sentence by arguing in court that his violent acts were genetic as his family had a history of criminal activity.
-: DIATHESIS STRESS MODEL- Frazetto et al: low MAOA activity only resulted in increased aggression when accompanied by traumatic childhood events that had occurred within first 15 years. supports interactionist approach
t= interactionist approach could be a less extreme but also more accurate explanation.

-: POLYGENIC
there are multiple genes involved in aggression, not just MAOA, for example, the 5HTT gene which controls serotonin transportation.
VASSOS ET AL METANALYSIS: found no evidence of a single gene being linked to aggression, instead found hundreds.
this means aggression is aetiologically heterogenous, and it would be hard to find a treatment or solution to aggression with this explanation, due to its little predictive value

Question 10

what is ethology?

Answer 10

the study of animal behaviour in natural settings
the ethological explanation assumes that aggression is an instinct in all species- it is innate and does not need to be learnt
-
we can study behaviour of animals and extrapolate findings to humans as we are all subject to the same forces of natural selection

aggression is adaptive (a feature that has developed over time making the species better suited for the environment (they can survive and reproduce)

Question 11

what are the adaptive features of aggression (according to ethology)?

Answer 11

TERRITORY: after an aggressive display of behaviour, the defeated animal is rarely killed, instead they are forced to establish their territory elsewhere spreading the species over a wider area, meaning there is less competition for food
ESTABLISH DOMINANCE: displaying aggressive behaviour allows animals to climb the social hierarchy as it shows they have power over other animals, giving them higher stats. this gives them rewards such as mating rights in the group, so they have less mating competition.
RITUALISED AGGRESSION: intra-species aggression often involves aggression to assert power but it rarely involved death
if the defeated animal was killed every time, this would not be beneficial for the overall population of the species as they could risk extinction.
most aggressive encounters instead consist of ritualistic signalling (e.g., displaying claws or teeth)

Question 12

explain the role of Fixed Action Patterns (FAP) in aggression

Answer 12

stimulus > Innate releasing mechanism (physiological structure such as activation of amygdala) > FAP (specific sequence of behaviours triggered by IRM)

main features of FAP
1. STEROTYPED- relatively unchanging
2. UNIVERSAL- found in all animals of that species
3. UNAFFECTED BY LEARNING
4. BALLISTIC- once behaviour is triggered, it cannot be stopped
5. SINGLE PURPOSE- only occurs in a specific situation
6. RESPONSE TO SPECIFIC/SIGN STIMULUS

Question 13

ethological explanation AO3

Answer 13

+: RESEARCH SUPPORTING FAPs FROM TINBERGEN
male stickleback are very territorial during mating season and in this time they develop red spots on their bellies, to identify other male sticklebacks. this can trigger their FAPs
Tinbergen presented the male fish with a range of wooden fish with red spots on their bellies. they would act aggressively towards the red spotted fish compared to the fish without red spots.
increases external validity of FAPs, supporting the UNIVERSAL feature.
-: MORE ACCURATE DESCRIPTION OF FAPS SHOULD BE MODAL RATHER THAN FIXED
. Hunt provided evidence that the duration of each behaviour within an FAP varied across individual of a species, as well as across the situation in which it was trigger. suggests that environmental factors and individual differences affect how FAP is expressed, going against the idea of a universal FAP explaining aggression.
t= the evidence of FAPs are mixed.

+: SUPPORTED BY BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION
idea of IRM coincides with certain biological explanations. the limbic system is an example of IRM, and has research supporting the role of heightened amygdala activity in aggression.
features of the ethological explanation overlap with biological explanations (that have a lot of supporting research) rather than undermine them, such as socio-psychological explanations might.
this further increases its objectivity
-: BIOLOGICALLY DETERMINIST/SOCIALLY SENSITIVE

-: PRINCIPLES OF EXTRAPOLATION
humans have more complex social systems than other species and a greater degree of higher order thinking, which may influence why we act aggressively (more emotion attached to it).
. we are less territorial beings, and also have to think more about consequences before we act.
explanation lacks pop. val.
-: DOES NOT ACCOUNT FOR CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
NESBITT: found that killings by white males was more common in southern USA compared to north USA suggesting that aggression can be influenced by social norms and it cannot be completely innate.
reduces external validity.

Question 14

what are the key principles of evolution?

Answer 14

there are differences within species (due to mutations which causes genetic variations)
animals with the most well adaptive features survive, and pass on the adaptive features to offspring

Question 15

how is aggression evolutionary?

Answer 15

SEXUAL JEALOUSY - men could never be certain if they fathered a child.
paternal uncertainty is a result of the threat of cuckoldry (raising a child that is not yours). this would be a waste of resources, so sexual jealousy increases display of anti cuckoldry behaviours, which increases the chances of being reproductively successful
MATE RETENTION STRATEGIES: WILSON AND DALY
direct guarding: vigilance over partners behaviour, checking who she is speaking to
negative inducements: issuing threats or dire consequences for infidelity
SHACKELFORD ET AL: issued out questionnaire to 107 married couples. one measures the mate retention behaviours of the male, ad the other collected data from the women about the male’s violent behaviour.
found a +ive association between mate retention and IPV

REMOVE COMPETITION:
Volk suggested that characteristics associated with bullying were attractive to the opposite sex
bully displays dominance and strength while making others look weak. this means females are more attracted to the bully as they thing he is stronger, so aggressive behaviour reduces competition for female mates.

Question 16

evolutionary explanation AO3

Answer 16

+: EXPLAINS GENDER DIFFERENCES
explains why men are generally more aggressive and why aggressive behaviour is different in man and women
Campbell suggested it is not adaptive for women to be violent as it puts their kids at risk so instead their behaviour is verbally aggressive to ensure the father continues providing.
the fact that the explanation aligns with gender differences we may see in real life increases its external validity, and makes it more plausible.
-: OUTDATED
. over simplistic- main human priority is no longer to reproduce anymore.
. does not explain why females are physically aggressive sometimes, and also doesn’t explain aggression in the context of homosexual relationships (again, reproduction is not a priority).
t= evolutionary explanation does not align with more modern features of society, suggesting that it lacks temporal validity.

+: POTENTIAL POSITIVE IMPLICATIONS
explains why bullying may occur, and by understanding it we could better think of solutions. so if part of it is for boys to show dominance, we could implement ‘meaningful roles’ to bullies, providing an alternative display of status and power.
real life application
- : MOSTLY SOCIALLY SENSITIVE
main conclusion is that aggression in males increasing mating opportunity and parental certainty. this presents aggression as a good thing which would lead to higher levels of violence, especially domestic violence.

-: PARITAL EXPLANATION
only looks at nature, what about nurture?
bandura found that having an aggressive role model led to more observed aggression in children. this is unlikely to be a results of sexual jealousy or MTS, since they children were prepubescent. this is another strong explanation that stresses the importance of the environment suggesting behaviour cannot be completely innate.
perhaps an interactionist approach would be better.

Question 17

frustration aggression hypothesis AO1

Answer 17

• it is a social psychological explanation of aggression created by Dollard et al
• anger hostility, and violence occur when we are prevented from achieving our goals
• this causes frustration which always leads to aggression
• aggression is cathartic as the frustration is satisfied as a result

drive to goal>obstacle>frustration>aggression>success>catharsis
OR frustration>aggression>punishment>frustration…

the likelihood of aggression is dependent on the proximity to the goal and the chances of aggression leading to success.

DISPLACEMENT: aggression cannot always be expressed towards the source of frustration if the source is
1. too abstract (e.g., government or economical situation)
2. too powerful (risk dire consequences)
3. unavailable at the time
therefore aggression can be displaced onto a weaker alternative that is the opposite of these things.

Question 18

frustration-aggression hypothesis AO3

Answer 18

+ RESEARCH SUPPORT FROM RUSSELL GREEN
. male university students had to complete a puzzle
1. puzzle was impossible to solve
2. ran out of time because a confederate kept interfering
3. confederate insulted ppt when they failed to solve the puzzle
this was all aggressive provocation
ppts then had the chance to shock confederates
condition 3 gave most shocks, then condition 2, then 1
. all experimental ppts gave more intense chocks than the control group
. increased external validity of explanation in that a build up of frustration leads to increased expression of agsression.
-: POTENTIAL NEGATIVE IMPLICATIONS
. a central assumption of frustration-aggression is that aggression can be cathartic (if it leads to success of goal).
there are potential negative implications in this, since people may be encouraged to act aggressively if they think it will make them feel better
. in reality aggression may not be cathartic. Bushman designed a study where ppts would hit a punching bag. he found that the ‘better’ the felt after, the more aggressive they were (aggressive venting amplifies aggression)

-: LINK BETWEEN FRUSTRATION AND AGRESSION MAY NOT BE SO DIRECT- aggression doesn’t always come from frustration (e.g., sadistic personality disorder), and likewise, frustration may not always cause aggression. for example it can cause other negative emotions, such as sadness or shame etc.
only a partial explanation.
+: BERKOWITZ UPDATED A-F-H WITH NEGATIVE EFFECT THEORY.
said frustration instead causes negative effects, one of which can be aggression.
said frustration does not always cause aggressive behaviour, but frustration does create a readiness to display aggression
.presence of ‘aggressive cues’ in the environment making aggressive behaviour more likely.
. more comprehensive explanation.

+ RESEARCH SUPPORTING WEAPON EFFECTS FROM BERKOWITZ & LEPAGE
. lab experiment- confederates gave shocks to ppts
ppts could give shocks back to the confederates
. if 2 guns were on the table: ppts gave 6.07 shocks
in no guns were on the table: ppts gave 4.67 shocks
. supports the role of environmental cues, increasing its external validity
-: SAMPLE BIAS
. all American sample
ppts reaction to environmental cues (esp. guns) may be influenced by cultural norms e.g., the lenient rules on gun laws may increase the effect it had on aggression. may not be the same in cultures where guns aren’t normalised.
ethnocentric, and risks imposed etic if it was applied to other cultures

Question 19

outline SLT applied to human aggression

Answer 19

aggression can be learnt from direct and indirect learning
DIRECT LEARNING- OC
. positive reinforcement- child A snatches toy from child B and has a positive consequence of getting the toy(learns that aggressive behavour is rewarding)
. negative reinforcement
. punishment

INDIRECT LEARNING: OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
. child learns aggressive behaviour by observing aggressive role models e.g., siblings or peers or media stars
BUT: just because they have learned behaviour does not mean that they will repeat the behaviour.
they will only repeat it (or not) when they see the consequences to the action
e.g., child C sees child A snatch toy from B and then be rewarded for it. child C is now more likely to carry out aggressiuve acts (vicarious reinforcement)

Question 20

descrube cognitive conditions for learning and self efficacy according to SLT

Answer 20

COGNITIVE CONDITIONS FOR LEARNING
ATTENTION
RETENTION
REPRODUCTION
MOTIVATION

SELF EFFICACY: the extent to which we believe our actions will achieve a desired goal
A child’s confidence in their ability to be aggressive grows as they become more certain that aggression will bring rewards. This grows in repeating aggressive acts.

Question 21

evaluate SLT as an explanation for aggression

Answer 21

+ RESEARCH SUPPORTING INFLUENCE OF OBSERVATION FROM BANDURA
. 72 children aged 3-5.
multiple condition: child either had an aggressive or non aggressive role model, the same or opposite sex to them
. in aggressive condition, child watched role model play gently with range of toys laid out on table, and then act aggressively to bobo doll. in non-aggressive condition, role model continued playing gently.
found that children in aggressive condition more directly imitated observed behaviour than in non-aggressive situation
. supports the ide that aggression can be caused by imitation from observation of role models.
-: EXPLANATION IS ENTIRELY ON THE ‘NURTURE’ SIDE OF NATURE/NURTURE DEBATE.
. implies that all aggressive acts are an acquired characteristic through experience. ignores any influence of biological factors, even though research suggests there may be some innate influence on aggression, since boys (overall) imitated aggressive behaviour more than girls. this detail may support the role of innate characteristics, such as testosterone levels in aggression.
. the research support and theory as a whole is undermined by biological causes
T= an interactionist approach may be most accurate when explaining aggression

+ RESEARCH SUPPORT FROM POULIN & BOIVIN
. found aggressive boys aged 9-12 mostly formed friendships with other aggressive boys.
boys acted as role models to each other
each boys own aggression was reinforced by observing other boys using proactive aggression to get what they wanted.
their aggressive behaviour was also reinforced by the approval of rest of the group
. external validity- supports the role of vicarious reinforcement and role models.
-: PARTIAL EXPLANATION
this study did not find the same similarity between friends for reactive aggression. boys did not imitate each other’s aggressive outbursts
reactive aggression is more impulsive and unpredictable, so therefore less influenced by previous learning/observation, and the consequences are less certain.
. reduces the applicability of SLT in explaining aggression, as it does not address all kinds.
T= SLT ONLY EXPLAINS PROACTIVE AGGRESSION.

+ REAL WORLD APPLICATION.
emphasises the importance of role models in influencing a child’s behaviour.
findings of SLT can be applied to the real world, by providing children with non-aggressive role models, for example, especially in the media, ensuring models in kids’ TV encourages non-aggressive acts
. they can also use indirect learning to their advantage, by showing scenarios where aggressive behaviour is punished, otherwise known as vicarious punishment.
+: LESS DETERMINIST THAN OTHER EXPLANATIONS
follows soft determinism, that although a child’s behaviour is influenced by role models and observations, they still have free will to decide whether to carry out the aggressive act. this is implied in the ‘motivation’ stage of mediational processes.
. this is much more applicable to real life, as it allows aggressive acts to be punished, unlike e.g., a biological explanation, that presents the individual’s behaviour as out of their control.
T= SLT HAS MORE EXTERNAL VALIDITY AND APPLICATION THAN OTHER EXPLANATIONS.

Question 22

outline deindividuation as an explanation for aggression.

Answer 22

deindividuation: psychological state where an individual loses their personal identity and takes on the identity of a social group (e.g., when in a crowd, or wearing a uniform)
. individual is les concerned by social norms that would normally condemn aggression
. responsibility for actions is shared throughout the crowd so we experience less personal guilt about directing harmful aggression at others.

ZIMBARDO: distinguished between individuated and deindividuated behaviour
individuated: rational, conforms to norms
deindividuated: emotional, impulsive, irrational

ANONYMITY increases chances of deindividuation (less fear of retribution as we are unidentifiable) as does CROWD SIZE (more anonymous in a bigger crowd)
. fewer opportunities to judge us negatively.

PRETICE-DUNN & ROGERS: REDUCED SELF AWARENESS
. argued anonymity doesn’t directly lead to aggression but its consequences do.
PRIVATE SELF AWARENESS: how we pay attention to our own feelings and behaviour
. reduced when part of a crows- less critical
PUBLIC SLEF AWARENESS: how much we care what others think of our behaviour
. reduced in crowds due to anonymity.

Question 23

evaluate deindividuation as an explanation for aggression

Answer 23

+: SUPPORTING RESEARCH FROM ZIMBARDO
. female ppts; were told to shock confederates to ‘aid learning’
50% wore bulky lab coat and hoods that hid their faces (anonymous)
50% wore normal clothes and large name tags ( establishing personal identity)
all ppts were told something about learner before hand e.g.,, she is ‘honest’ or ‘critical’
. anonymous ppts delivered 2x the amount of shocks than control, regardless of description
. increased validity.
. controlled lab ex. - conclude causation between anonymity and increased aggression.
-: DSICOURSE IN WHAT EXACTLY CAUSES DE-INDIVIDUATION.
. it is not clear whether de-individuation actually occurs due to anonymity and a complete loss of responsibility.
. Johnson and Downing found that ppts in a KKK uniform have confederates more intense shocks than those dressed as nurses. suggests that there is an element of conformity to social roles in the process, so the identity of the social group would impact observed aggression.
participants are perhaps conforming
t= although research supports a link between deindividuation and aggression further research is needed to gain a clearer and detailed understanding of its process.

+: SUPPORTING RESEARCH FROM DIENER
. observed 1300 kids trick or treating.
. it was arranged that some went in groups and others went individually
. at one house, the confederate told them to take one sweet, and then left the room
. observed if child took one sweet or more, or took the money laid on the table
. children were most likely to steal money when in large groups, wearing costumes that made them anonymous
. natural experiment, further solidifies the external validity of experiment
+: PRACTICAL APPLICATION
. improved understanding of de-individuation helps us to understand aggression within the media, or online. Douglas and McGarty found that within studies of online chatroom activities, the most violent and aggressive messages were sent by anonymous accounts, explained by de-individuation.
. this can then be reformed, by for example, taking away some of the anonymity in social media.

+ SUPPORTING RESEARCH FROM ZIMBARDO AND FRASER
. field experiment: argued that a big city was more anonymous than a small town (more people/larger group)
. conducted experiment in the Bronx NYC and Palo Alto (town in Cali) where they parked similar cars outside universities
. made car looked abandoned and reactions to cars were observed for 1 week
. BRONX: battery and radiator were removed within 10 minutes and in one day almost everything was removed
. after 3 days, there were 23 incidents of ‘destructive contact’
. Palo Alto, car was untouched the entire 7 days and people protected it from the rain
. field experiment, ecological validity and ppts reactions are more natural is it takes place in an ordinary setting compared to a lab
- : ISSUES OF CONTROL IN THE STUDY BETWEEN THE 2 LOCATIONS
. may not be the effects of anonymity that led to more aggressive treatment in the Bronx, but instead the fact that the Bronx has more economic deprivation and higher overall criminality (Crime rates) than Palo Alto
. this acts as a confounding variable which completely undermines the findings of research and its ability to conclude causation T= not all supporting research can solidify the objectivity of deindividuation.

Question 24

define institutional aggression

Answer 24

occurs when aggressive behaviour has become the norm of an institutions (such as prisons or the military)

Question 25

outline the importation model explaining institutional aggression

Answer 25

DISPOSITIONAL EXPLANATION
outlined by Irwin and Cressey
. prisoners bring (import) their pre-existing beliefs, values, attitudes, and norms into the prison creating an environment that reinforces aggressive behaviour
CRIMINAL/THEIF SUBCULTURE: inmates follow norms and value inherent in the role of a criminal (values such as being reliable to other criminals)
CONVICT SUBCULTURE: inmates who have been raised in the prison system
. they seek positions of power and influence within the prison
. use aggression as a form of coping
CONVENTIONAL/STRAIGHT SUBCULTURE: one time offender. not part of the criminal subculture before prison. identify more with prison staff and tend not to be aggressive.

Question 25

outline the deprivation model explaining institutional aggression

Answer 25

SITUATIONAL: developed by Clemmer
. aggression in prisons results from causes existing within the environment, which could even be other people
DEPRIVATION OF LIBERTY: person is no longer someone who can be trusted in a free world. they are morally rejected by society (limited civil right)
DEPRIVATION OF AUTONOMY: convicts realise they have no power and their behaviour is controlled (leads to frustrations and aggression)
DEPRIVATION OF GOODS: lack of personal possessions
DEPRIVATION OF HETEROSEXUAL RELATIONSHIPS
DEPRIVATION OF SECURITY

Question 26

evaluate explanations for institutional aggression

Answer 26

+ RESEARCH SUPPORTING DEPRIVATION FROM CUNNINGHAM
. analysed 35 prison homicides in Texas prisons
. homicides were all linked to arguments over drugs, personal possessions, or homosexual relationships.
. supports depravation and that situational factors within the prison leads to increased aggression
. external validity
-: RESEARCH AGAINST DEPRIVATION FROM HENSLEY
. 256 male and female inmates across 2 prisons in Mississippi
. allowed conjugal visits from partners (allowed to have sex), which would remove factor of deprivation of heterosexual relationships
. no link between these visits and reduced aggression, implied increased freedom does not reduce aggression, undermining deprivation
T= there is mixed research on the validity of DM, so further research is required to establish its credibility

-: RESEARCH AGAINST DEPRIVATION MODEL FROM CAMP AND GAES
.studies 561 inmates with similar criminal histories and dispositions to aggression.
50% of ppts were in low security prison, and 50% were in high security prison.
33% of ppts in low security prison were involved in aggressive acts and 36% of ppts in high security prison were involved in aggressive misconduct within 2 years.
this difference was not statistically significant
. undermines the role of situational factors. if deprivation was true, a high security prison (with less freedom) should have more aggressive acts. suggests dispositional factors are primary.
-: IMPORTATIONAL MODEL IS MORE APPLICABLE THAN DEPRIVATION
. importation model still takes into account situational influences, just not situational factors relating to prisons (e.g., childhood trauma, or class)
. as a result the importation model includes more factors that influence displays of aggression than the deprivation model (purely limited to prison factors)
. this more holistic view means that importation model is likely a more comprehensive explanation.
it also means that we can acknowledge aggression was likely a common part of the individual’s life pre-institution, which is more feasible than assuming a prison setting sparks aggressive acts in all inmates.
T= through the presence of contradicting research and comparing assumptions of each mode, the importation model seems to be a more plausible explanation

+: RESEARCH SUPPORTING IMPORTATION MODEL FROM DELISI ET AL
. 813 juvenile delinquents in California
. all had childhood trauma, high levels of anger and irritability and a history of violence/substance abuse
. they were more likely to engage in suicidal activity, sexual misconduct, and physical violence compared to control group with fewer negative dispositions
. increased external validity, supports a causal relationship between between dispositional factors and institutional aggression.
-: IMPORTATION MODEL IS DETERMINIST
. implies inmates are determined to be aggressive due to their negative dispositions
. if the assumption is that institutional aggression is caused by inmates’ pre-existing traits, one can assume that these same individuals will be aggressive even out on a prison setting
. if the importation model is accepted, there is a high risk of it being socially sensitive, as it could lead to ex-convicts still being judged by society, people assuming that they are aggressive (unable to get jobs).
T= although importation model may be valid, it risks negative implications for how convicts are viewed even out of prison settings.

Question 27

outline media influences on aggression

Answer 27

TV: excessive amounts of TV viewing may be linked to aggression, even if TV is not aggressive.
Robertson et al looked at TV viewing hours of 1000 ppts up to the age of 26.
time spent watching YV in childhood was a predictor of aggressive behaviour in early adulthood (+ive correlation)

VIOLENT FILM CONTENT: Bandura repeated bobo doll study (aggressive role model) but showed children video instead, found the same results
Paik and Comstock: meta analysis of 200 studies- found positive correlation between TV/film violence and aggression
. BUT: found that film violence only accounted for 1-10% of variance in children’s aggressive behaviour suggesting it only plays a minor role (causation, disposition to aggression causes attraction to violent media).

COMPUTER GAMES: bigger influence
. individual has more active role
. more directly rewarded for violence
Bartholow et al: found that ppts blasted more white noise in confederate’s ear after playing 10 minutes of violent video game, than when they didn’t.

Question 28

outline desensitisation, disinhibition, and cognitive priming

Answer 28

DESENSITISATION: reduced sensitivity to aggressive stimuli
when we witness violent actions, we normally experience physiological arousal (increased heart rate etc)
by witnessing violent actions regularly, we become used to its effects- stimulus has less impact, so their is less anxiety and arousal associated with it. this makes us more likely to carry aggressive acts out.

DISINHIBITION: lack of restraint to carry out aggressive acts.
normally, there are strong social and psychological inhibitions against using aggression to solve conflict- it is not a social norm
these restraints are loosened after viewing violent media
media presents violence as normative and violent behaviour can even be rewarded in video games
these established new norms (that present violence as acceptable)

COGNITIVE PRIMING
repeated viewing of aggressive media (especially in video games) provides us with a script of how and why violent situations play out.
this script is stored in our memory creating a readiness for aggression.
the script is triggered when we encounter cues in a situation that we perceive as aggressive (therefore we act more aggressively)

Question 29

discuss media influences on aggression

Answer 29

+: MEDIA INFLUENCE EXPLAINED BY SLT
. Anderson et al (2017) present SLT as a ‘convincing theoretical framework’.
. characters in the media act as role models to children, so children may model and imitate behaviour based off of their actions. (could impact disinhibition- altering norms to be like role model)
. aggression can also be vicariously reinforced if they see media stars being rewarded.
. logical explanation to media influences makes it more plausible.
+: RESEARCH SUPPORTING HOW SLT CAN OPERATE THROUGH MEDIA.
. Bandura’s conditions: in experimental group, children watched a cartoon of ‘Rocky’ acting aggressively, and then either being rewarded or punished. the control group saw no aggression.
the mean number of aggressive acts observed was highest when aggressive role model was rewarded (75 acts recorded) compared to 53 aggressive acts observed when role model was punished
. external validity and causation.

(+ RESEARCH SUPPORTING INFLUENCE OF VIOLENT COMPUTER GAMES FROM DELISI
. interviewed 227 juvenile offenders with history of aggression
. aggressive behaviour was significantly correlated with how often they played violent computer games (and how much they enjoyed them)
-: causation? what if innate aggression leads them to play aggressive video games? subjective.)

+ RESEARCH SUPPORT FOR DESENSITISATION
. Krahe: showed ppts violent (and non-violent) films then measured physiological arousal
. ppts who reported regularly watching violent media showed less physiological arousal when watching violent film clips.
they then found that this was linked to increased aggression, as ppts with lower levels of arousal gave louder bursts of white noise to a confederate (]proactive aggression).
. supports desensitisation as an explanation for aggression (also supports our clear understanding of the physiological processes involved in desensitisation)
-: CANT EXPLAIN ALL AGGRESSION
. doesn’t explain the link between desensitisation and reactive aggression (reactive aggression is more impulsive and emotional, and often leads to physiological arousal). this means that desensitisation (which is lowered arousal) likely isn’t the cause for reactive aggression.

+: research supporting disinhibition
. Berkowitz + Alioto; ppts who saw a film depicting aggression as a form of vengeance gave more electric shocks for a longer duration
. media violence may disinhibit aggressive behaviour if it is presented a justified and therefore socially acceptable.
. link between removal of social constraints and subsequent aggressive behaviour.
+: PRACTICAL APPLICATION
. increased understanding on disinhibition and its effects on aggression mean we can think of reforms to combat this. for example, we can amplify the social constraints that inhibit aggression, like making stricter laws, or even in school have more dire consequences. this emphasises that violence is NOT permittable.

+: CONFOUNDING VARIABLES IN COGNITIVE PRIMING RESEARCH
. especially in research into the effects of video games, as violent game-play tends to be more complex than non-violent game play.
. this complexity is a confounding variable, as it could be the complexity of the game causing the cognitive priming, rather than the aggression
Zendle found that when complexity was controlled, the priming effects of video games disappeared.