Aggression Flashcards

1
Q

Neural mechanisms

A

Limbic system:
Triggers an aggressive response to threats.
Amygdala attaches emotion to sensory information.
Activity in the amygdala can predict aggressive behaviour.
Hypothalamus regulates the autonomic nervous system, which also regulates responses to emotional situations so if damaged it can cause aggressive responses.

Serotonin:
The PET-1 gene is linked to the production of serotonin which decreases aggression. Damage to the gene in mice raised aggression(deneris, 2003)
Serotonin deficiency hypothesis states that decreased serotonin disturbs the orbitofrontal cortex and, therefore reduces the inhibitory effects(of normal serotonin levels) with the consequence that individuals are less able to control impulsive and aggressive behaviour. (Decreased self control)

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2
Q

Neural mechanisms AO3

A

Limbic system:
Research in Greece found that removing the amygdala reduced aggressive incidents by between 33 percent and 100 percent although small sample of 13.

Phineas Gage study provides evidence that brain damage may have an effect on personality, including aggression.

Serotonin:
Rats selected for reduced aggression levels had higher serotonin and greater levels of serotonin related activity than wild, more aggressive counterparts.

Most evidence is correlational and doesn’t indicate causality.

Research support for the role of serotonin: berman et al. Found that participants given a serotonin enhancing drug gave fewer and less intense electrical to a confederate than people in a placebo group, this gives evidence of a link between serotonin function and aggression that goes beyond correlational findings.

Gender bias: Mann et al. 1990 found aggression rose for men but not for women when they were given a drug that depletes serotonin. Demonstrates beta bias in understanding our responses to aggression.

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3
Q

Hormonal mechanisms

A

Testosterone is a male sex hormone known for regulating social behaviour such as aggression.
It does this by interacting with the subcortical brain structures, such as the limbic system.
Positive correlations have been found between testosterone levels, and aggressive behaviour.

Dabbs, 1996 found aggressive boys, violent criminals and military offenders all had high levels of testosterone.

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4
Q

Hormonal mechanisms AO3

A

Higley et al. 1996: individuals with elevated testosterone levels exhibit signs of aggression but rarely commit aggressive acts, suggesting that social and cognitive factors play a mediating role.

For example:
Dabbs and Morris 1990 “blocked pathways to success” study found that when a rich boy with high testosterone returned home from the army, he was less likely to get into trouble, but when a poor boy with high testosterone came home from the army he was more likely to get into trouble.

This suggests testosterone doesn’t simply cause aggression, but it makes testosterone more likely as a response to frustration which would’ve felt as necessary response for the poor boys due to their frustrating circumstances.

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5
Q

Neural and hormonal mechanisms general criticisms AO3

A

Much of the evidence is only correlational and may not prove causation. It isn’t clear wether the hormones promote aggression or aggressive behaviour stimulates hormone production.

Reductionist: sees only biological factors, overlooking social issues such as de-individuation

Deterministic: assumes humans have no choice and will follow primitive behaviour patterns.

Overlooks effects of socialisation and other environmental issues such as environmental stressors.

Much of the work on neurotransmitters has been done on animals and may not apply to humans so easily.

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6
Q

Genetic factors

A

MAOA gene:
Also known as the warrior gene. It produces monoamine oxidase which metabolises neurotransmitters, including serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline. If this gene is dysfunctional it can cause low MAOA activity which means these neurotransmitters are not regulated properly leading to aggressive behaviour.
Brunner et al found that male family members who had histories of impulsive, aggressive behaviour had low levels of MAOA and low activity version of MAOA gene.

Twin studies:
Coccaro found aggressive behaviour to have a 50 percent concordance rate in MZ twins and 19 percent for DZ twins. For verbal aggression this was 28 percent for MZ and 7 percent for DZ.

XYY genotype:
Suggested that those with the rarer XYY genotype are more inclined to aggressive behaviour.

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7
Q

AO3 for the twin studies, XYY and MAOA

A

Animal research MAOA:
Godar et al. Selectively bred mice without the MAOA gene. They showed increased aggression as well as increased levels of serotonin. If they were given fluoxetine to reduce serotonin they became non aggressive again.

Contradicting research XYY:
Theilgaard found that XYY genotypes may cause an increase in height but not aggression in men.

Self report twin studies:
Rhee and waldermans meta analysis of twin/adoption studies showed that genetic influences on aggression were greater when using self report rather than teacher/parent reports. This suggests the way aggression is measured can affect conclusions about the link between it and genes.

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8
Q

General criticism for genetic factors AO3

A

Deterministic:
Assumes humans have no choice and will follow quite primitive behaviour patterns.

Reductionist:
Danger of seeing only biological factors and overlooking social psychology such as individuation. Overlooks effects of socialisation and other environmental issues such as environmental stressors. Genetic factors do not work in isolation but interact with environmental factors aswell.

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9
Q

Ethological explanation

A

Ethology is where we learn about human psychology from studying other animals.

.Conrad Lorenz believed that aggression was an innate adaptive response, something which had evolved in humans and animals to help them survive by:

-see off predators: e.g group of hissing geese can drive off a fox. If geese survive the gene leading to aggressive response will be passed on.

-getting resources: Lorenz also suggested that aggression was aimed at same species a lot to compete for territory or sexual partners, but some animals could damage eachother in the process e.g wolves, lions.

This would be maladaptive(bad for the species) so they fight until one backs down, not to the death, just to establish who is stronger and who is weaker. Lorenz observed that most intra species aggression consisted mainly of ritualistic signalling(displaying teeth) and rarely became physical.

This creates a society in which each individual knows their place. They have evolved ways of warning each other to back off(bark, cats hiss)-tinberg called these FAP(fixed action patterns)

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10
Q

innate releasing mechanism(IRM) and fixed action patterns(FAP)

A

Aggression can be a result of an innate releasing mechanism(IRM) which triggers a fixed action pattern.
Creatures have evolved an instinctive response to certain things, e.g. a red rag to a bull.
-an IRM is a biological structure/process that is activated by an external stimulus. When it is activated it triggers a FAP which is a behavioural sequence that is universal to the species.

Lea(1984) analysed FAP, 5 features:

  1. Stereotype: behaviour follows a certain pattern each time.
  2. Universal: all the animals in that species use the same type of threat
  3. Innate: all the animals in the species seem to be born with it and don’t have to learn it.
  4. Ballistic: once it starts, it cannot simply be stopped
  5. Specific triggers seem to set it off(IRM)
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11
Q

IRM and FAP AO3

A

IRM:
cannot be generalised to humans, humans can act upon free will, unlike animals, human aggression is extremely destructive, but we seem to have an element of control(our processing might not be auto/innate)

Aggression cannot be truly measured in animals behave the intent is not known and cannot be communicated(may be an act of survival not aggression)

FAP:
Tinberg presented male sticklebacks with a series of wooden models of different shapes. The red on the competing males underbelly is the stimulus that triggers the IRM that, in turn, leads to the aggressive FAP.
He found that if the model had a red underside, the stickleback would aggressively attack it. No red meant no aggression. Once triggered, FAP ran its course to completion without any further stimulus.

Breland and breland found that animals tend to revert to instinctive behaviour regardless of training. This would support the FAP theory.

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12
Q

Ethnological explanation AO3

A

Not ritualistic:
Goodall observed chimps systematically killing another group despite risks to their own survival and therefore not seeming to be adaptive.

Cultural differences:
Nisbett 1993 found that South American white males would respond more aggressively than North American white males when insulted. Suggest aggression is a learnt social norm and not innate.

Modal action patterns:
Evidence suggest that behaviours are not fixed and can be influenced by the environment. There may be an instinctual drive but it can vary due to training or different types of encounter.

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13
Q

Evolutionary explanation

A

States that aggression is adaptive but has other adaptive functions other than gaining resources or status. Men could be more aggressive than women because they could be trying to keep their mate.

Believes men are at the risk of cuckoldry(uncertainty of the offspring being theirs) and so use adaptive mate retention strategies to stop their mates from being unfaithful.

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14
Q

Mate retention strategies

A

Includes:

Direct guarding: males being vigilant by checking where their has been or looking at their phones etc.

Negative inducements: using threats to prevent infidelity.

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15
Q

Bullying

A

Characteristics associated with bullying make a mate more attractive as it demonstrates strength and reproductive success to females. Women can also use bullying behaviour to secure their partners fidelity and prevent them from being unfaithful.

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16
Q

Evolutionary explanation AO3

A

Real life application:
Bullies can be offered other pro social rewards such as sporting activities(which also display strength) and cost of bullying can also be increased to increase the likelihood of bullies giving up their power.

Cultural differences:
The kung san tribe view aggression negatively and it is very rarely used. Therefore, culture must affect aggression rather than it being evolutionary.

Can explain gender differences:
Women are less likely to be aggressive due to the risk to themselves and their offspring, explaining why they are more likely to use verbal aggression and non aggressive tactics.

Deterministic:
Suggest aggression is natural but figuerdo 1995 suggest jealousy and domestic violence are context specific, not inherited.

17
Q

Social psychological explanations

A

Frustration aggression hypothesis
Social learning theory
Deindividuation

18
Q

Frustration aggression hypothesis

A

. Based on the psychodynamic explanation of catharsis. Aggression is an innate drive that has to be released as we experience frustration(Dollard et al 1939)
. This can be directly at the source of frustration or through displacement onto something/someone else. It can also be channelled into acceptable activities such as sports, known as sublimation.

Berkowitz(1969) added to this hypothesis by saying that aggression only happens if there are certain cues present with the frustration e.g. weapons(weapon effect)

19
Q

Frustration aggression hypothesis AO3

A

Support for weapon focus:
Berkowitz gave participants the option to shock a confederate who had angered them. One group had a gun as a cue, one a badminton racket and the other had no cue. Highest shocks were given by gun group.

Greens study 1968:
Participants were either insulted by the experimenter during a jigsaw puzzle task, given an impossible task or not enough time to complete. All of the groups gave more shocks than a control group, particularly those who were insulted.

Real life application:
If the presence of guns causes aggression then this has implications for gun laws in America. However, ecological validity could be criticised as these studies use artificial causes of frustration.

20
Q

Social learning theory

A

.Bandura stated that aggressive behaviours are displayed by a role model and children will observe the consequences of that aggression.
.If the children see the aggressive behaviour rewarded(vicarious reinforcement) then they are more likely to imitate that behaviour.
.If aggression brings the child the desired reward then their self efficacy or confidence that they can get what they want from that behaviour will grow.

Bandura et als bobo doll study demonstrated that children were quick to imitate aggressive behaviour towards the bobo doll after they had observed an adult doing so.

21
Q

Mediational processes

A

Four cognitive mediational processes that are needed for this to take place:
-Attention: pay attention to aggressive act.
-Retention: remembering the aggressive act
-Motor reproduction: physically able to to imitate the behaviour.
-Motivation: reward or reinforcement needs to happen for the behaviour to be imitated.

22
Q

Social learning theory AO3

A

Real life application
Media can influence a child’s behaviour if an aggressive role model is seen to be rewarded. This is especially true if they identify with the model in some way, for instance they are funny. This could influence age ratings on films etc. in order to protect children from unsuitable models.

Adult study:
Phillips 1986 found that homicide rates increased by 12.46 percent after a heavy weight Boxing match had been aired. The reward of watching a boxer win caused adults to imitate the aggressive behaviour in the real world.

Reactive aggression:
SLT cannot explain instances of reactive aggression where children react in the heat of the moment. They do not Achieve a reward and only seek retribution from it.

23
Q

Deindividuation

A

Festinger invented the term as “a process whereby normal constraints on behaviour are weakened as a person lose their sense of individuality.

Deindividuation Believes humans have a natural tendency to be aggressive if they think they can get away with it. Being disguised or part of a crowd will therefore lead to increased aggression.

24
Q

Crowd behaviour

A

Based on the work of Le Bon 1985 who investigated Crowd behaviour and found that when in a group our behaviour changes.
We become more collective and lose our sense of self and often behave in ways we would not normally e.g. aggressive behaviour.

Zimbardo 1969 suggested that individuated behaviour is rational and normative whilst Deindividuated behaviour is emotional, irrational and anti normative.
Darkness, mask, uniforms and crowds all promote deindividuation as we are less identifiable.

25
Q

Self awareness

A

Prentice-Dunn and rogers(1982) proposed that anonymity doesn’t cause aggression but the consequence of it do. They explain this through two types of self awareness:

Private self awareness: paying attention to our feelings and behaviour, which we do less when we are a part of a crowd as we are distracted by the events around us.

Public self awareness:
How much we care about what others think of our behaviour which is reduced in crowds as we are anonymous and less accountable for our actions.

26
Q

Deindividuation AO3

A

Research support:
Dodd 1985 found that 36 percent of participants would engage in anti social behaviour if they believed they could get away with it. This was compared to 9 percent pro social behaviours.

Baiting crowds
Crowds are more likely to bait a suicide jumper when it’s dark, the crowd is large and the jumper is a fair distance away. This demonstrated deindividuated aggression in real life Mann 1981

Nature or nurture:
Other explanation demonstrates that nature can predispose us to aggression due to our biology. Deindividuation may just act as a stressor but the root cause may be more nature initially.

27
Q

Institutional aggression

A

Dispositional explanation:
Prisoners are aggressive, people who make the prison violent and import aggression behaviour from outside the prison to inside(importation model)

Situational explanation:
Prison environment makes people aggressive including deprivation from certain environmental things(deprivation model)

28
Q

Importation model

A

Irwin and cressey 1962 state that prisoners bring criminal subculture in with them to the prison and the use of aggression inside the prison reflects their lives in the outside world.
Personal characteristics such as gender, race and class, as well as histories of violence can explain why some are aggressive on the inside. Therefore, if they were aggressive on the outside, they will be aggressive inside prison too.

29
Q

Deprivation model

A

Aggression is caused by the crowded nature of prisons and a number of environmental deprivations(clemmer 1958) including:

Deprivation of liberty: no freedom
Deprivation of autonomy: few choices
Deprivation of goods: no belongings such as phones
Deprivation of Heterosexual relationships: may feel emasculated
Deprivation of security: fear aggression from other inmates.

30
Q

Institutional aggression AO3

A

Support for importation model:
Cam and Gaes matched inmates according to history and predisposition to aggression. 33 percent of those in low security prison were aggressive and 36 percent in a high security prison. Suggesting personality not environment is important to consider.

Support for deprivation model:
Cunningham et al found that arguments over drugs, homosexual relationships and personal possessions was the cause of innate homicides, suggesting deprivation is a cause of aggression.

Interactionist model:
Jiang and fisher giorlando suggest that the importation model explains violence amongst inmates better and deprivation model explains violence against prison staff better. It could be deprivation combined with imported personal characteristics that cause aggression(Dobbs and waid 2004)

31
Q

Media influences

A

Effects of computer games
Desensitisation
Disinhibition
Cognitive priming

32
Q

Effects of computer games

A

Investigated through:

Experimental studies:
Bartholow and Anderson asked participants to administer a blast of white noise at their choice of volume to an opponent. Those who played a violent computer game first chose higher noise levels than those who played a non violent game.

Correlational studies:
Delisi et al found a positive correlation between offenders aggressive behaviour and how often they played violent computer games, as well as how much they enjoyed them.

Meta analysis:
Anderson et al found that exposure to violent computer games was associated with aggressive behaviour, thoughts and feelings. This was true for men and women as well collectivist and individualistic cultures.

33
Q

Effects of computer games AO3

A

Ecological validity:
Lack of real world application as administrating white noise doesn’t reflect real world aggression and there is also no fear of retaliation in a lab study.
However this can be because it is unethical to allow realistic forms for aggression.

Cause and effect:
Correlational studies cannot tell us the direction of a relationship. Aggressive games could cause aggression(socialisation hypothesis) or those who are aggressive seek out aggressive games(selection hypothesis)

Publication bias:
There is a tendency for only statistically significant findings to be published, which is a problem for meta analysis because they generally only include published studies. This creates a false impression that the effects of violent media on aggression are greater than they actually are.

34
Q

Desensitisation

A

When viewing violence our sympathetic nervous system will be aroused and cause a physiological stress response, including increased heart rate and the release of adrenaline.
We are constantly exposed to violent and aggressive content and over time we have become habituated to its effect and no longer becoming physiologically aroused.
In addition, repeated exposure creates a belief that violence is a social norm and empathy towards victim reduces.
Therefore we are more likely to accept aggression and respond violently in provoking situations.

35
Q

Disinhibition

A

Social learning theory teaches us that violence is an antisocial behaviour and that we should not use it. However the media can portray aggression as normal, justified, and sometimes rewarded. This means the viewer now deems violence as a normal response.

36
Q

Cognitive priming

A

Aggressive media can act as a script for an individual which tells them how to respond in violent situations. When we perceive cues for aggression in our environment the scheme we have created in our memory from the media is activated, meaning we are already primed for aggression.

37
Q

Desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming AO3

A

Desensitisation support:
Krahe et al 2011 found that participants who were shown a violent film and were habitual viewers of violence had lower levels of physiological arousal than those who were not habitual viewers. It was also correlated with unprovoked aggression in a noise blast task.

Disinhibition support:
When participants were shown a film showing justified violence(revenge) they would give longer and more electric shocks to a confederate(Berkowitz and alioto)

Cognitive priming support:
Fischer and greitemeyer found that males who were given misogynistic lyrics recalled more negative attributes of women and behaved more aggressively towards a female confederate. This was also true with women who were given man hating song lyrics.