Agents of socialisation Flashcards
Informal social control
Informal social control Social control can also be exercised informally. The family, peers and the media all exercise control but without written rules and formal codes of conduct. Instead, they have informal expectations for controlling behaviour. A child who repeatedly comes in late and ignores all curfews on their bedtime could expect their parents to use sanctions such as being grounded or losing time on the family computer, but these sanctions are unlikely to be formally written down and followed. Sanctions from the peer group could involve being left out of group activities because of failure to conform to the group norm. For example, a girl whose peer group all play hockey but who repeatedly misses the Practice IS likely to be left out of activities related to hockey and may face exclusion from the Peer group. Figure 2-11 could be used to illustrate the difference between formal and informal social control, but we should not overemphasise the differences as being rigid and fixed. Schools will have formal rules and regulations, but failure to conform to them will rarely lead to expulsion. Teachers use informal methods of social control in the same way as parents to encourage appropriate behaviour. The differences between informal and formal control should not therefore be exaggerated. The concept of social control is important in understanding how we are socialised into accepting the culture of particular groups in society.
Social control - formal
Social control This section has explained the process of socialisation and how it affects individuals and groups within society. A useful theme in helping to understand the different roles played by the agents of socialisation is social control. Formal social control Formal social control mechanisms are associated with the more formal agents of socialisation. lnstitutions such as school, university, large workplaces and religious institutions all use formal mechanisms of social control. Formal ways of controlling include written rules or codes of conduct that individuals need to follow. When people deviate from the rules they can expect sanctions to be used. A person who is late for work every day could expect to be warned about punctuality. A student who fails to hand in their coursework for their university course would expect to be sanctioned and would probably fail the course.
Peer group agent
Peer group Peer groups are people of a similar age who may also be friends. Peers are probably most influential during the formative years, between the ages of five and eighteen, during the process of growing up and becoming an adult. Peers are important agents of socialisation during this time because most of the time is spent in school together. Skelton and Francis (2003) show how the role of the peer group is essential to understanding the use of playtime in primary schools. Their research shows how playgrounds are dominated by issues of space, where the boys frequently use vast amounts of the space for football, excluding the girls and non—sporty boys. In the same way, girls are seen to exclude boys from activities such as skipping. As children begin to socialise outside school, peers can become even more influential and they continue to have a lasting influence beyond the age of eighteen. Peer groups can form around issues of rebellion or resistance. For some people resisting the norm and wanting to be individualistic is part of the transitional process of growing up. ln these cases peer groups offer an expression of individuality which is difficult to find elsewhere in society. Some youth subcultures such as punks are based on rebellion and resisting the norm (see p. 249). Bennett (2006) studied a group of middle—aged punks in Kent who shared the same interest and enthusiasm for punk music and this gave them the same group coherence they had shared since their young punk days.
Peer group as an agent of socialisation
Peer group as an agency of socialisation Peers encourage each other to conform to shared norms and values; this means that peers can exert pressure on individuals to imitate or to reject group behaviour. Group membership and belonging are important and powerful forces influencing people to conform to fit in. Within peer groups there are usually significant figures, individuals who have a higher status within the group and who are role models for others. Peer groups are usually based on shared norms and values, for example people who enjoy playing a particular sport or who enjoy a similar type of music. Sewell (2000) uses the concept of ’cultural comfort zones’ to describe how peer groups tend to include people from very similar social backgrounds. In many school canteens/ refectories there are groups of students who ’hang around’ together and appear to be from the same ethnic background, social class or gender group. Sewell’s work focuses particularly on ethnicity, although the same concept could be applied to social class and to groups focused around a sporting interest such as basketball or football. Cultural comfort zones suggest that peer groups form around issues of perceived commonality, what members of the group share in common. Peer group pressure Peer group pressure is an important part of the socialisation process and can be positive or negative. Peer pressure is usually used to encourage conformity, for example pressuring someone to dress in a certain way. Peer group pressure usually means that individuals are encouraged to follow the norms of a group: behaving in a certain way, dressing, talking and often joining in the same activities/hobbies. Clearly, this can involve the adoption of positive norms such as encouraging a healthy lifestyle or involvement in a team sport. On the other hand, peer group pressure can lead to the adoption of negative norms such as encouraging individuals to smoke or to use illegal drugs. Failure to conform to the group’s norms can lead to rejection and isolation, which few people want to experience. This is why peer pressure is so influential in the socialisation process.
Religion agent
With many different religious groups in society there will inevitably be clashes over faith. The contemporary UK considers itself as valuing religious freedom and practising religious tolerance, which means that individuals and groups are free to practise their own religions without fear of persecution (providing their activities fall within the law)
The strength of religion in society is a heated topic in sociology. Many writers argue that the UK is undergoing a process of secularisation, where religion is losing its influence in society. However, critics of this view point to the strength of many religious groups in terms of membership and religious practice and suggest that religion is not declining but rather is changing. Voas and Crockett (2005) explore the concept of believing without belonging (BWB) in the UK and concluded that there is a strong relationship between religious belief and belonging to a religious organisation.
Most sociologists argue that religion in the UK has become more privatised, a matter of Personal choice and sometimes a lifestyle choice. Celebrities such as Madonna and her affiliation to the Kabbalah faith and Tom Cruise’s attachment Scientology have led to an interest in new religious movements. Alongside the main world religions of Buddhism, Christianity, Judaism and islam are many new interpretations of faith available in the contemporary UK. There is also a a trend in the uk towards the growth of spiritualist and New Age movements, so maybe this is a new Type of religion.
Religion as an agent of socialisation
Religion as an agent of socialisation The extent to which religion influences and even controls members is another heated sociological topic. The following is a list of ways in which religion acts as an agent of socialisation.
- Through written rules or through encouraging individuals to follow particular moral codes, different religions promote particular values in society. These values are all supported by norms or patterns of behaviour that religions encourage their members to follow. Most Jewish people do not eat pork (because animals with cloven hoofs are considered ’unclean’) and treat Saturday as a rest day. Hindus do not eat beef as they consider the cow to be a sacred animal.
- Most religions have a figure of authority or worship who acts as role model to followers. These figures of authority have huge influence over the values of their followers.
- Religion can affect males and females in different ways. Consider, for example, different dress codes within religions. Jewish men wear skullcaps and Jewish women don’t. Some Muslim women are socialised into the norm of wearing a hijab and hiding as much of their body as they can away from men. Other Muslim women are not socialised into this norm but rather choose o wear the hijab themselves as an act of empowerment.
- There are strong links between religion and ethnicity. Research by Holden (2006) funded by the Home Office examined the attitudes of a large sample of 15 year olds towards race, religion and integration. It found that at a school with predominantly white pupils nearly a third believed that one race was superior to another, compared with a tenth from a majority Asian Muslim school and less than a fifth at a mixed—race school. The study concluded that it would be reasonable to suggest that the Asian Muslim students were the most tolerant. The study also found that many of the students’ attitudes came from their parents, suggesting that the role of religion in the socialisation process is related to family background.
- In 2006, the British Social Attitudes Survey (BSA, 2006) reported a major decline in religious identity since the 1960s. In 1964 26 per cent of those interviewed in the survey did not identify with a religion. That figure had risen to 69 per cent in 2006. While religion as a form of social identity has declined, it continues to be strongly related to the values of those who do identify with a religion. On issues such as sex before marriage and euthanasia, religious views clearly influenced other values
Media agent
Media The mass media is arguably the most dominant agent of socialisation for young people in the UK today. The mass media comprises a number of different media through which ideas and messages are transmitted. Television, radio, film, DVD, internet, text messaging, billboard advertising and the print media (newspapers/ magazines) are all examples of media that collectively are known as the mass media. It is difficult to imagine any individual growing up in thecontemporary UK whose life is untouched by the media in one way or another. Research with 11 to 16 year olds in 2004 found that 91 per cent of young people owned a mobile phone (Madell, 2006). in 2005, 16 year olds spent on average two and a half hours a day watching television. ’ « When you consider that major multinational businesses all have marketing departments which are responsible for selling the image of products through advertising, you begin to realise the Powerful impact that television and advertising can have. As consumers of media we use them to access information but we also as use them as a means of communicating with each other. The mass mediais not a one—dimensional tool sending out messages and images to influence the way we think and act, it is a multidimensional tool that we use and consume.
Media as an agent of socialisation
The media as an agent of socialisation The media socialises individuals in a variety of ways. Through its representation of social groups within society. Sociological research shows how the media representation of social it groups changes over time. Research findings Show that 20 years ago women in the media tended to be portrayed in a limited number of ways and usually as being of secondary importance to men. Research by McRobbie l970s girls magazine called Jackie showed how young women were being encouraged to value romance and getting and keeping a man. McRobbie has since used the concept of ’slimblondeness’ to describe an archetypal slim blonde female which featured heavily in the media and encouraged young women to copy this appearance. More recently, Currie (1999) analysed the content of teen magazines spanning a 40-year period and noticed a dramatic increase in the importance of beautification in recent years. The growth in the significance of men's magazines in recent years cannot be overlooked. Magazines such as Loaded, FHM, GO and Maxim could be seen as outcomes of the consumer society and men's relationship with it. These magazines are targeting consumer-conscious males. .Similar findings emerge from studies on other social groups such as the elderly, ethnic minorities and the working class. .The media is likely to have an influence on its audiences. This is not to say that individuals believe everything they see, read or hear in the media but rather that images and stories presented in the media will influence attitudes and possibly behaviour to some extent. There are a number of different sociological explanations of the effect of the media in society. Some theories suggest a direct effect, where whatever media we consume influence our attitudes/behaviour straight away. Others suggest a more indirect effect, where media we consume influence us through how our friends/family react to them, or have a drip effect, influencing us gradually over time. .There have been a number of high profile cases in the media where media imagery has apparently led to ’copycat' incidents, that is, the imitation of events/scenes seen in the media. Recently, emo music has been accused of affecting its audience by producing music/lyrics and emotional outbursts on stage that can lead to self- harm. While there may be some truth in this claim, it is not possible to isolate the media as a cause of any one type of social behaviour, and therefore the debate on the influence of the media in society is likely to continue. .The media plays an important role in the creation of the consumer culture. Brand names compete with each other via the media and often use celebrity role models to sell the images of their products. A good example here is the supermodel Kate Moss who famously dated Pete Doherty and modelled for Chanel and H&M, among others. However, following her conviction for possession of a class A drug she was sacked by Chanel and H&M. Clearly, as a supermodel with an iconic boyfriend, Moss had been attractive to a number of companies as she could sell their images to a worldwide, rich audience. But, following drugs charges, Moss became seen as a liability and the companies did not want a supermodel with a drugs conviction as their main face. Since being dropped by these companies Moss has regained her supermodel and super rich status, now designing and modelling for Top Shop.This case illustrates the power of role models in selling a product (or not), and suggests any media coverage positive or negative may have an advantage in a commercial setting.
Education agent
Most children begin full—time schooling at the age of four or five. At this point they begin to interact and socialise with a wider number and type of individuals. Starting full—time school means that children have to learn to adapt to a new set of rules, regulations and cultural expectations. During the eleven years of compulsory schooling (5-16) constantly reminded of hierarchy and the importance of social order.
Just as there are different family types, so there are a number of different types of school. Most children in the UK attend state-funded schools, although a growing number attend private school (some are also called public schools) paid for by their families, with a small proportion gaining scholarships. There are religious schools, single- sex schools, grammar schools and specialist status schools, among others. The type of school you attend will greatly influence your experience of schooling because expectations, norms and values differ between schools. However, there are two crucial processes of social learning operating in any school and pupils are influenced daily by both: the formal and the informal (hidden) curriculum.
Formal curriculum
The formal curriculum comprises the subjects that you are taught in school, including the content of the lessons. During compulsory schooling this is decided by the government in the form of a National Curriculum. Few people would argue with the National Curriculum’s emphasis on the foundation subjects of numeracy, literature and science, but many have questioned the type of literacy taught or the lack of Practical work in science. Beyond the -foundation subjects some critics question why modern foreign languages are not compulsory and why many history topics focus on British history. The National Curriculum has been described by some critics as an ethnocentric curriculum, which means that it teaches British values and culture as being dominant over others (Gillborn, 1990). ln education today, the formal curriculum will determine what children learn and to some extent their achievement in school.
Informal curriculum
The informal curriculum is also known as the hidden curriculum and is responsible for teaching children the everyday rules and regulations of school life. ln this sense the informal curriculum Plays a crucial role in the socialisation of pupils. as it is responsible for the transmission of the norms and values crucial to survival in 8 Classroom setting. Issues such as the importance Olpunctuality, what is expected at the beginning of a class, how to queue outside a classroom, the places to gather in at breaktime and the places to avoid are all learnt via the hidden curriculum. They are learnt by talking to other children, listening to stories from older children/ siblings, watching and imitating others. The hidden curriculum will differ hugely depending on the type of school attended but it cannot be escaped. What children learn is not formally taught to them, but it is the way in which the rules, the regulations, the culture and the expectations of the school are passed on. Sometimes the formal and the informal curriculum overlap, for example with school uniform. Most schools will have a formal uniform policy that pupils must follow. However, it is through informal learning that pupils understand how far they can deviate from the uniform policy. This is particularly the case with a uniform policy which states that blazers and ties must be worn. If teachers don’t enforce such a policy then children learn that wearing these is not compulsory. They have learnt this through the hidden curriculum and it may have an important bearing on how they view other school rules and regulations.
Education as an agent of socialisation
Education as an agent of socialisation
-Subject knowledge is likely to impact on what children learn about the culture of their society. For example, if children were taught that all good scientists were male this would have an impact on how they viewed science and gender issues. The content of lessons therefore plays an important role in the socialisation process.
-School rules and policies also play an important part in socialising pupils. Teachers play a crucial role in this process, sometimes acting as role models but also through their use of positive and negative sanctions: rewarding/praising or reprimanding/punishing. Teaching assistants and other staff in school are also important in setting standards and expectations of behaviour from pupils.
ln short, education socialises individuals into the culture of a school, which involves learning new norms and values, understanding different social roles and, for most schools, appreciating the importance of achieved status.
When you share your views with others you are likely to find that there is a difference in your views, especially if you have attended different schools. The educational experiences you have referred to are also likely to differ, which Suggests that education socialises individuals in different ways.
Family agent
The family is often considered as the bedrock or cornerstone of society. A stable family comprising a man and woman who are married, caring for their own children, is described as a nuclear family and has been presented as the ideal family type in the contemporary UK. in 2004, of the seventeen million families in the UK around 70 per cent were headed by a married couple with an average of 1.8 children per family. However, many individuals in the UK do not live in nuclear families. In 2004, one in four dependent children lived in single—parent families. Some individuals live in extended family units where more than two generations of relatives share a home, most commonly with grandparents but also sometimes with aunts and uncles. lt is estimated that ten per cent of all families with dependent children in 2004 were reconstituted families or what is commonly known as step families (Office for National Statistics, Labour Force Survey, 2004). There is a debate within sociology concerning the extent to which the contemporary UK has a diversity of families. There are clearly a number of different family structures and family sizes throughout the UK. However, we should not forget that not all children live in family units. ln 2001, 139,000 children were living in other household types in the UK, living with adults Who were not their parents, and a further 52.000 under—l6 year olds lived in communal establishments such as children’s homes (Social Trends, 2001).
Family relationships
Clearly, family size and structure will have an impact on relationships within the family unit and on family life. A family with two parents and one child, with grandparents living 200 miles away will have a different set of family relationships from a reconstituted family who all live in the same geographical area and where two mothers and two fathers are involved in childcare. Maintaining Contact with grandparents and extended family is often reliant on technology, with the internet and email providing an opportunity for enhanced communication and relationships.
The following factors have all been identified as having an impact on family relationships.
-The extent to which parents balance . work with family life. The concept of Shlft parenting has been used to describe ‘ situations where both parents are in paid employment, often working complementary Shifts and sharing responsibility for the Children around their working lives and shift patterns. These families rarel)’ 5 family time together, as their lives are around employment and childcare.
-The number, age and even gender of siblings will impact on family relationships.
-As life expectancy increases in the UK a different dimension to family life is emerging, as adults are increasingly likely to be involved in caring for their parents into old age for a longer period than in the past.
Family as agent of socialisation
Family as an agent of socialisation The family is the main agent of primary socialisation for most individuals in the contemporary UK. Three ways in which the family socialises the young are given below. 0 The family teaches the basic norms and values of everyday life. This is often through a process of imitation, where children copy the behaviour of family members, or where children learn the social roles expected of them by looking at role models within the family unit. Basic norms such as how to eat food and the time and place for family mealtimes are passed on by the family. These basic norms can reflect wider values, such as the importance of family mealtimes for maintaining close relationships. 9 Socialisation within the family can also come from the use of positive and negative sanctions, such as praising a child when they behave in the way a parent wants them to, for example giving stickers to young children as a reward. When parents want to discourage inappropriate behaviour they can use negative sanctions, such as withholding computer time. 0 Gender roles within the family are also likely to impact on a child’s socialisation. If a young boy sees his father going out to work every day and taking the role of the main wage earner, while his mum stays at home taking the role of homemaker, it is likely to have on impact on how he will view gender roles in family life. This does not mean that he will copy the norm of being the man who is the main wage earner/ breadwinner or that he will share the same value of believing that men are providers and women are carers, but his formative experience is likely to influence his decisions and pathway later in his life.
The process through which families socialise their children will depend on a number of different factors. Structural issues such as family size and geographical issues such as where other significant family members live will have an impact, but factors such as social class and ethnicity are also likely to play a significant part in the socialisation process.
