African Americans Flashcards
Position of African Americans in 1865 (good)
13th Amendment in February: neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall exist within the United States -> freed 4 million AA slaves
‘sharecropping’ allowed former slaves to work land in return for considerable share of what was produced
freedom to move, enjoy personal liberty, no longer separated from partners and children
Position of African Americans in 1865 (bad)
did not mean they immediately gained rights as former white owners
suggested that all former slaves should leave USA, but Lincoln ruled it out as impractical
another idea = ensure AAs had some status as whites -> would cause formidable problems in the south as they viewed AAs more akin to property than citizens. Even in N, a minority saw total equality as undesirable
former slaves = caught between being legally free & not seen as equal
no means of making a living
shardcropping = not v diff from slaves
violence in aftermath of war for any supposed lack of respect to whites and any attempts to make use of their rights given to them
segregation increased markedly
fear of AAs increased therefore violence and segregation intensified
uncertainty:
- gov -> what to do with problem of millions of freed slaves, as well as the southern rebels whom they had defeated
- whites -> how far to go with measures for greater equality
- AAs -> their role/ status in post-war America and how far to press for equality
The US government and the development of civil rights
1865: Southern states not readmitted to the Union and under mil. role
-> congress had opportunity to promote CR -> Congressional Reconstruction
-> more radical changes than during any other period in 1960s
Congressional Reconstruction (good)
VP Johnson took office in April 1865
Once southerners had sworn oath of loyalty to Union, they could elect state assemblies which would ratify the 13th Amendment
Radical Republicans = persuasive and influential advocates for change; helped by Congress establishing a federal institution in March 1865 -> Freedmen’s Bureau, to help emancipated slaves
Joint Congressional Committees of 15 established in December 1865 which pushed through 14th and 15th Amendments ; sanctioned military support for the recon. measures -> federal force not used again in this way until 1950s
1886-7 Congressional measures had opposition from Johnson, leading to him being impeached ; his successor, Grant, worked more closely with Congress and used troops to support legislation
-> unity between pressure and Congressional = remarkable changes 1868-75
Congressional Reconstruction (bad)
Johnson = concerned with Union not the rights of AAs
sympathetic President allowed states confidence to pass Black Codes
Jim Crow Laws
Jim Crow Laws = discriminatory measures passed by southern states
-> gradually, segregation became legalised
Tennessee segregated rail travel in 1881; soon spread through south
segregation affected: transports, waiting room, sports, hospitals, orphanages, prisons, funeral homes, cemeteries, education
attempts to designate separate residential areas -> Supreme Court objected
-> but, possible to achieve in practice due to intimidation
South able to remove AA representatives by intimidation
Measures against voting
Could vote in theory due to changes made after 1866 but states established qualifications e.g literacy tests or ‘grandfather clauses’ (man’s family had voted before a certain date) or voter registration tests
-> 13,000 AA voters in Louisiana 1896 fell to 5000 in 1900
Violence and intimidation (no action taken to end it)
By 1890s, an AA was brutally killed every 2 days -> lynching = almost institutionalised
Violence = common during slavery ; grew during CW; grew after it
-> w/o federal forces to suppress it; it became a regular way of life into 1950s
State gov = major role in restricting CR
Congress = major role in extending CR
Courts as a barrier to CR
1883 United States v. Harris
-> SC ruled that 1875 CR Act = unconstitutional
-> held that private discrimination did not fall under federal jurisdiction
Wilkins v. Mississippi 1898
- Court ruled that discriminatory voter reg. laws were not unconstitutional as there was no specific mention of race in voting qualification
-technically true but obvious that the intention = disenfranchise AAs
1896 Plessy v. Ferguson
-in 1890 Louisiana passed a JC law segr. railway trains
-Homer Plessy, an AA, challenged law by trav. in a whites-only carriage
-he was punished in New Orleans Court and appealed to SC, who ruled 7-1 that Louisiana was not going against constitution
-> est. legal basis for segregation
- separation did not imply inferior treatment -> ‘separate but equal’ = enshrined in legal ruling
-AA schools and homes were far from equal
1896 = legal backing to segregation
Court as a promoter of CR
Gradual change in legal rulings 1890-1944
-1944 Smith v Allwright
-> ruled that it was unconstitutional for black voters to be excluded from party primary voting
-1954 Brown v. Topeka Board of Education
-> segregation = illegal
-1951: parents, with help of NAACPs, sued board for not providing appropriate education
-leader, Oliver Brown, said that his daughter had to walk a mile to a segregated school when a white school was far nearer
-District Court ruled against them, quoting Plessy v Ferguson took decision to SC, who ruled unanimously for the ending of legal basis for segregation
-most significant federal intervention in CR since CR; led to violence in south and Federal forces to enforce it
-greatly encouraged AA pol. participation
-1960 Boynton v. Virginia
-> confirmed segregation on interstate buses -> Freedom Rides
-1971 Swann v. Charlotte Mecklenberg Board of Education
-> enforced desegregation busing children from white suburbs into inner-city areas w/ more black children
-1956 = legal backing to integration
The role of the executive: progress 1877-1960
Most progress made when different elements of gov. acted together
i) Reconstruction
ii) Period after 1963
In 1960, most elements of post-1877 period remained:
- AAs faced barriers when registering to vote
-segregation
-racial prejudice and violent outbreaks
-southern congressmen, state gov. + legislatures = against changes
- income, housing, opportunities = far better for whites
-AA facilities = inferior
-pol. participation by 1960 = worse than 1869
Presidents and civil rights
(positive)
-most radical administration since Reconstruction = Roosevelt + New Deal
-> increased aid for black and white people w/o official discrimination
-> creation of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) in 1933-7 provide unemployed w/ work
-Oscar De Priest -> single representative in Congress for 11 million AA (ONLY ONE)
Presidents and civil rights
(negative)
-Presidents spoke of AA achievements but there was no serious challenge to segregation
-> otherwise progressive Woodraw Wilson = white supremacist
AA benefited from Fair Labour Standards Act but did not cover agr. or domestic service
The impact of WWII (positive)
intense mobilisation raised issues of equal treatment
Roosevelt, Executive Order 8587 in 1940 -> prohibited discrimiation on basis of race, colour, creed
E.O 8802 in 1941 prevented discrimination in defence industries
The impact of WWII (negative)
none of this legislation had objective of increasing equality ; pressure to ensure supply of labour for defence + 100,000 strong ‘March on Washington’
- 1.5 million AA in armed froces 1942-5 (seg. units) - war for freedom and democracy but segregation remained
Desegregation (positive)
Truman: EO 9981 in 1948 ended segregation in the armed forces but the war was over
Eisenhower nevertheless gave federal support and for the desegregation of schools
1957: AA right to vote set down in law - Civil Rights Act
- Justice Dept. now had a CR Dept.
Attorney general given powers to intervene where rights were threatened
Desegregation (negative)
Truman praised by AA activists for open support but no comprehensive c.r legislation to return to position of early 1870s.
Eisenhower = against ending of ‘seperate buy equal’
In South, local juries did not enforce law
By 1960, only 28% of Southern AAs of voting age = registered
Why was there such limited progress?
-Issue of c.r = peripheral in comparison with the other issues e.g WWII, Depression, Cold War
-Influence of the Southern Demo Senators/representatives = barrier to passing effective cr legislation
Limited electoral support for c.r as so many AA could not vote -> issue not popular in N until 60s
c.r action would have meant a great deal of intervention in south, where racism = supported by state and local governments. Presidents faced revival of CW hatreds and issues of state rights
North: influx of AA from 1915 made racial hatred common
Liberalisation involved in c.r legislation opened administration to change of being ‘Communist’ or subverting tradition tradition
even a conservative southerner like Truman was criticised by cons. Demo.s for expressing c.r concerns and condemning lynching and violence
What had changed by the 1960s?
violence and discrimination gave ammo to Communist bloc in Cold War
-> saw USA as defending a rotten capitliast system
better communications, esp. TV, brought radical violence home to Americans nationally
Murder of Emmet Till 1955 -> acquitted of killers by all-white jury; his crime was talking ‘fresh’ to a white woman
Little Rock 1957 -> images of the mobs = bad for USA ; 101 Airborne Division
By 1960s AAs = better organised + more skilful in making demands
Kennedy administration (good)
Saw itself as a modernising government (sympathetic speeches and appointment of more AA to positions of authority)
Submitted a general cr bill to congress in June 1963
TP: by 1963, c.r = forced to forefront of national politics
-> partly due to increased effective campaigning by c.r organisations
March on Washington = 250,000 people
Kennedy administration (bad)
slow to make c.r key element of admin
taking decisive action = difficult to influence of S white bloc in Congress
violence, eemplified by murder of c.r leader Medgar Evans 1962
Johnson administration
assassination of Kennedy in Nov. 1963 made change possible - Johnson = vigorous
c.r legislation = more extensive and effective than at any time since Recon. :
Jan 1964 - 24th Amendment (rights should not be denied by failure to pay tax)
Jul 1964 - C.R Act - Federal courts hear cases involving discr
Aug 1965 - C.R Act - 13th Ammendment - right to vote
-> power to electorate
Fed gov.’s dismantling of restrictive laws = ley feature of Jonson administration
1960 - SC banned parades, processions and pub. demos in Birminghman to be unconstitutional
discr. in pub. areas and housing = banned
Economic inequality
Nixon’s E.O 11578 required all employers w/ fed. contracts to draft affirmative action pol.s to actively promote AAs
1972 Act extended equal empl.t leg to all fed, state, local gov
CR Act 1991 (Emp): businesses had to show that any discr in emp was not based on racial discr but was genuine requirement of company
The situation by the early 90s
high unemp, poverty, poor schools and housing
race riots in summer 1965 (LA - 34 dead) -> reemergence of riots triggered events of Rodney King [show failure of fed. gov. to address underlying causes of racial tension]
1989: graduation from high school = W: 77% AA: 63%
college: W: 21% AA: 11%
1989: unemp. 5% higher than W (higher than 1950s)
1987: income gap = $5000
lower hourly wage ($6.26 v $7.69)
retreat of middle class AA to suburbs left social gap bet. cities and suburbs
“harsh economic conditions” “brought disillusion to more and more blacks and disillusion with the pol. realm w/ declining turnout in elections”
Choices facing AA leaders after Reconstruction period
1) resit white violence and hope to regain political influence of 1865
- Colored Farmer’s Association
- Ida B. Wells (gun)
- Black Power & Panthers
2) withdraw from all attempts @ equality, accept segregation and male progress w/o antagonising white America
3) work within legal system and use courts to challenge the denial of rights
- E.J Waring
4) attempt to establish a separate state within a state
- Marcus Garvey
- NOI, BP
- could not be equal but could be separate on own terms
Why was their opposition to civil rights?
sudden change in status of AA in 1865 along w/ bitterness of civil war meant that many AA faced opposition in south
-> face of congresional reconstruction and military rule - Southerners made secret organisatins and turned to guerilla warfare
Ku Klux Klan origins
Secret society formed in Tennessee in December 1865. Overall coordination attempted in 1867
ideology of white suprenacy and political aim = to undermine Republican domination in south
strongest characteristic = localised groups of people with a varity of grievances, pursuing personal grudges and indulging in racist violence and intimidation
Ku Klux Klan methods
intimidation - white hoods, flaming crosses and secret oaths
portrayed white women in danger (sexual element) of having sex w/ AA
Freedmen’s Bureau members targeted in 1860s and again in 1950s/60s when cr. workers were killed
stopped AA from registering to vote -> later institutionalised as JC laws
attacked AA to stop them from attending desegrgated schools
physically attacked, beat, lynched and murdered AAs, destroying their property and on occasion setting off bombs
What did the Ku Klux Klan actually achieve?
JC laws introduced
set formidible precedent for white oppositin to civil rights
2000 deaths/injuries in Louisiana alone in run up to 1868 election
Grant = prepared to suspend habeas corpus (right to only be detained by law for arrest) and used federal troops to supress violence e.g in S Carolina in 1871
Ku Klux Klan failures
Republicans and AAs united against them
effective indictments by federal courts had their effect by 1870s and the KKK was not strong enough to resist federal powers
state legislatures turned against KKK
KKK withered away, but individual acts of terrorism continued
The revival of the Ku Klux Klan
reborn in 1915 on basis of myth -> ‘Birth of a Nation’ film portrayed Klan as part of a heroic struggle against N. domination and black control
a group in Georgia revived the costumes and attracetd anti-urban, anti-immigrant Protestant racists
enemies = not limited to AAs and included Jews, Catholics, foreigners, opponents of prohibition
Failrues of the KKK revival
targets were more widespread - effects on AA c.r = less
by mid-1920s, Klan was in decline; racial attacks continued but violence = sporadic
membership: 1920 = 4 million, 1930 = 30,000
Attitudes and actions of state governments
from 1877, opposition mainly came from activities of legally constituted state gov.s, the indifference of congress and the administration and judgement of the SC
1882: legislation against KKK declared unconstitutional
-> in south, official restrictions on AA pol. rights (JC laws and voting qualifications)
local/state authorities did little to control lynchings
situation reverted to pre-civi lwar period where south = allowed to regulate its affairs with regard to race - segregation and sharecropping and legal inequality and localised violence
(KKK bcame inactive because there was no reason for it to exist)
Resitance to civil rights
cr activists faced resistance from mant sources
- state gov legislatures, senators, representatives - the Republicans did not penetrate the ‘solid south’ and the Democrats pol. dominance = built on defence of segregation + presented a formidable barrier even to strong presidents like Truman and Kennedy
- vestiges of Klan and similar organisations and the tradition of violence and lynchings among the white population. Access to weapons = easy and white juries unwilling to convict iin matter of racial crime. CR often seen a N interference, much as abolitionism and carpet ‘begging’ had been seen before and after CW
Revivial of political violence in the south
bombing of prosporous AA homes in Brimingham Alabama
sympathies of police chief ‘Bull’ Connor allowed attacks w/o investigation : Connor allowed Klan members to attack Freedom Riders for 15 mins w/o taking action
attacks on homes of NAACP members in Florida in 1951
assassination of cr leader Medgar Evers in 1963 not isolated
1963 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in Birmingham not isolated
Revivial of political violence in the south
bombing of prosporous AA homes in Brimingham Alabama
sympathies of police chief ‘Bull’ Connor allowed attacks w/o investigation : Connor allowed Klan members to attack Freedom Riders for 15 mins w/o taking action
attacks on homes of NAACP members in Florida in 1951
assassination of cr leader Medgar Evers in 1963 not isolated
1963 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in Birmingham not isolated
Impact of continuous violence
changed public opinion and, as in 1870s, greater energy was put into law enforcement and revulsion at impact on USA’s international reputation
murder of 3 cr workers in Mississippi showed failure of radical white opposition to appreciate change in opinion
Preventing violence
proved impossible to prevent acts of violence which continued sporadically in 70s/80s
Turning point in opposition
1981 - Klan member Henry Francis Hays lynched AA teenager Micheal Donald
1997 - punished for crime
-> case bankrupted Klan as victims mother gained $7 million in damages in 1987
-> first time white man had been convicted / executed for racial murder since 1870s
Dwindiling oppositon
Opp. by White Citizens Council (‘middle class KKK’) not as effective in 50s/60s - used violence and economic power
-> media attention forced defiantly segregationalist governers (like George Wallace) to uphold SC decision
greater TV coverage meant that discrimination, segregation, violence and disregard for law could not be hidden as it had been from 1877-1940s
effective opposition depended on support from SC rulings and political indifference of gov. - once that changed, more effective cr organisation and leaders of th eopp. seemed merely old fashioned, desperate and dengerous to USA’s reputation
The importance of organisation in the devlopment of C.R
loss of rights following Recon. period showed dangers of AAs relying on individual leaders for the development of CR
The importance of organisation in the devlopment of C.R
loss of rights following Recon. period showed dangers of AAs relying on individual leaders for the development of CR
All the organisations
NAACP
CORE
Rosa Parks
NOI
Black Panther
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
NAACP - first major org. and founded in 1909
led predominantly by whites -> duBois = only senior black committee member
today, NAACP = only cr organisation to remain from 37
originated from concerns about race riots and lynchings expressed in Niagara Movement
included duBois , Ida Wlls, liberal white social reformers/campaigners
NAACP aims
suffrage rights
equal justice
better education
equality before law
employment opportunities according to ability
(more an organisation for AA rather than by AAs -> initially dominated by Jewish white liberals)
NAACP aims
suffrage rights
equal justice
better education
equality before law
employment opportunities according to ability
(more an organisation for AA rather than by AAs -> initially dominated by Jewish white liberals)
Main thrust of NAACP campaigns
legal - target = challenge JC laws which ran contray to Constitutional amendments (the Recon. Period = 100 years ahead of its time)
Actions of the NAACP
campagined in a relatively restrained way against President Wilson’s Policy of segregating Federal employment
Est. 50 local branches and a journal and set up marches in protest against the film ‘The Birth of a Nation’ and against race riots in St. Louis in 1917
Actions of the NAACP
campagined in a relatively restrained way against President Wilson’s Policy of segregating Federal employment
Est. 50 local branches and a journal and set up marches in protest against the film ‘The Birth of a Nation’ and against race riots in St. Louis in 1917
used its middle class membership for legal challenges and effectively blocked moves to make seg. of AAs into distinct districts illegal in 1917
more dynamic recruitment policy in 20s led to inc. in membership in 1920s but law remained main tactic
published evils of lynching
defend AAs sentenced to death in Arkansas
Failures of the NAACP
did not acieve a mass following (only 6000 members by 1915)
NAACP’s achievements
SC ruling in 1944 made it illegal to deny AAs right to vote in primary elections
increased role and reputation of black lawyer Thurgood Marshall through long and steady campagins
steady attack on segregation culminated in Brown v Topeka Board of Education ruling in 1954, but the enforcement of the policy = beyond respurces of NAACP
legal challenges led to SC decisions
NAACP and Rosa Parks
Rosa Park’s actions changed nature of NAACP’s work and introduced idea of using organisation and economic pressure and exploiting publicity of a celebrated case
barred from Alabama which offered the way for more dynamic local organisations using mass campagins : 1955 bus boycotts = high point but indication of limitations
NAACP overview
most famous incidents of the 50s = work of NAACP but after 1963 its great days appeared to be over
NAACP overview
most famous incidents of the 50s = work of NAACP but after 1963 its great days appeared to be over
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
like NAACP , united white liberal opinion and expertise nd had specific targets - resulted in tangible progress
campaigns of CORE (1942) focused on key areas (2 thirds of membership were white)
CORE impacts
began Freedom Rides in 1947 when 8 white activists challenged segregation on buses in south
was repeated to more effect in 1961. opposition more pronounced as was publicity
provoked mob violence in Anniston and Birmingham and savage ill-treatment of AA Freedom Riders in Jackson, Mississippi
as President Kennedy was led to authorise the INterstate Commerce Commission to desegregate interstate transport, it had, as with the NAACP actions, an immeidate results
a similar example of focused action was the campaign to desegregate schools in Chicago; an indication that action for segregation following NAACPs court victory had been slow
Who was Rosa Parks?
married Raymond Parks, a barber and active member of local NAACP
she joined NAACp in 1943 and leading memebr of local Youth Council
Rosa Parks before bus boycott
urged young people to use white-only libraries
encouraged by Virginia Durr and Septima Clarke, who were AA women activists, to study how 1954 SC decision in Brwon v. Toprka to extend segregation
particually resentful of bus segregation and had several times openly objected to paying at front of bus
Previous AA fined on buses
1944: Viola White had been fined for sitting on white bus seat
2nd March 1955: 15 year old Claudette Colvin arrested and fined for not giving up seat to white person
Previous AA fined on buses
1944: Viola White had been fined for sitting on white bus seat
2nd March 1955: 15 year old Claudette Colvin arrested and fined for not giving up seat to white person
Previous AA fined on buses
1944: Viola White had been fined for sitting on white bus seat
2nd March 1955: 15 year old Claudette Colvin arrested and fined for not giving up seat to white person
Rosa Parks and the bus boycott
1st December 1955: Rosa Parks coming home from jobs as seamstress at department store and refused to give up seat - arrested and fined (not fingerprinted and photographed)
-> quickly taken up by NAACP and led to boycott of city’s buses and involvement of MKL Jr (RP = more ‘respectable’ and better image for campaign than Colvin)
1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott
Rosa Parks and the bus boycott
1st December 1955: Rosa Parks coming home from jobs as seamstress at department store and refused to give up seat - arrested and fined (not fingerprinted and photographed)
-> quickly taken up by NAACP and led to boycott of city’s buses and involvement of MKL Jr (RP = more ‘respectable’ and better image for campaign than Colvin)
1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott - SC ruled that segregation on buses = unconstitutional 381 days later in 1956
Rosa Parks on the bus boycott
“I had no idea that when I refused to give up my seat that it would lead to an end to the segregation in the South”
Rosa Parks after the boycott
1957 moved to Detroit and continued to campaign
admired Malcolm X
What did the bus boycott show?
effectiveness of local organisation (NAACP and Montgomery Women’s Political Council)
-> to sustain boycott, Montgomery Improvement Association formed by MLK Jr and allies -> influential in SCLC w/ headquaters in Atlanta which was backed by highly competent organisers
Montgomery Improvement Association
org = diff and had guiding political philosophey and highly articulate figurehead MLK Jr
- one of its founders influential in forming Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) in April 1960
- different elements came together in Council of Federal Organizations in Feb 1962 - stratergy of increased voter registration in Deep South
- -> included CORE and NAACP along w/ SNCC and SCLC
Actions of NAACP Youth Council 1958
organised sitins to challenge desegregated lunch counters, most noticeably Greensborough in N. Carolina in 1960
Mass demonstrations
most famous actions from King and SCLC
emphasis moved away from carefully planned campaigns and legal challenge to more mass demonstrations and broarder appeal for change
Mass demonstrations
most famous actions from King and SCLC
emphasis moved away from carefully planned campaigns and legal challenge to more mass demonstrations and broarder appeal for change
Mass demo - King and SCLC actions
aware that election of Kennedy in 1960 indicated a greater opportunity for change
- vowed philosophey was non-violence
- campaigns looked for white liberal support
- won support from organised religion in South
- wanted to demonstrate mass feeling
- looked to invoke constituional right of freedom of expression over local state laws which prevented demonstrations
Demonstration in Albany (Georgia)
1961 (first)
thwarted by careful prep. of police chief Laurie Prichett who restrained his men and had King released after his initial arrest
Mass demo in Birmingham
Chief Connor inadvertdly helped cause of cr by use of force (shocking bc children used due to failing of adult sitins and marches)
King gained publically from his time in jail
March on Washington
August 1963
non-violent, multi-racial protest w/ various organisations
King’s rhetoric, publicity, numbers and support of presidency came together to create largest event than 1865 or after
white support gathered and strongest since Recon
250,000 people
CR Acts of 1964 and 1965 - triumphs for mass organisation
MEDIA
Seperatism
Garvey’s UNIA = shortlived but spectacular
- newspapers = large circulation
- parades in 1920 in NY were among largest ever seen in city
- membership may have reached 1 million
- nationalist black-based organisation => stressed worth of AA in wider context
- did not pursue aims of white Americans => used economic power of modern capitalism to generate enterprises and a major shipping line
- inspired activism such as Malcolm X’s father and was obvious forerunner to Black Power
- high point og organisation by and for AA
-> did not focus on highlighting black victims and highlighting harsh treatment (celebrated AA values and strengths)
-> stressed economic improvement and enterprise
-> international support
-> religious-type fevour and dynamic/charismatic leader
Seperatism
Garvey’s UNIA = shortlived but spectacular
- newspapers = large circulation
- parades in 1920 in NY were among largest ever seen in city
- membership may have reached 1 million
- nationalist black-based organisation => stressed worth of AA in wider context
- did not pursue aims of white Americans => used economic power of modern capitalism to generate enterprises and a major shipping line
- inspired activism such as Malcolm X’s father and was obvious forerunner to Black Power
- high point og organisation by and for AA
-> did not focus on highlighting black victims and highlighting harsh treatment (celebrated AA values and strengths)
-> stressed economic improvement and enterprise
-> international support
-> religious-type fevour and dynamic/charismatic leader
Seperatism failures
no alliance with white American (Garvey = arrested and imprisoned)
goals difficult to define and achieve
Nation of Islam
vein of radicalismand sepratism kept alive by NOI
founded in Detroit by Wallace Fard Muhammad and dominate until 1975 by Elijah Muhammad (Poole)
expanded considerably in 1950s w/ help of Malcolm X
came after UNIA and shared commin features
-> depended on charismatic leaders saw struggle in USA of AA in broader context relied on vibrant newspaper and ideas of black superiority
NOI impacts
links w/ Islamic religion increased emotional appeal of NOI and belief AA = chposen people of Allah -> religious strength akin to SCLC + NAACP/CORE
ideology stronger than other civil rights organisations as was seperatism from support of WA or alignment with values
more spiritually intense atmosphere of both UNIA and NOI matters of voter registration and equal political rights not priorities
for members of NOI, efforts of King and demeaning spectacle of police playing on passive black resisters were objects of hatred - achievements of CR Act seemed irrelevant when superiority and power of black race was not accepted
Impact of NOI critical outlook
fed into Black Power movement and by 1964 cr movement was losing its unity as many saw King and organisations as excessively dependent on white handouts
Limitations of King’s achievements
shown when James Meredith - first ever AA to enter Uni of Mississippi in 1962 was shot and wounded on cr march in 1966
-> yeras between CR acts saw increased racial tension and often slow imptlementation of reform and change
Limitations of King’s achievements
shown when James Meredith - first ever AA to enter Uni of Mississippi in 1962 was shot and wounded on cr march in 1966
-> yeras between CR acts saw increased racial tension and often slow imptlementation of reform and change
Limitations of King’s achievements
shown when James Meredith - first ever AA to enter Uni of Mississippi in 1962 was shot and wounded on cr march in 1966
-> yeras between CR acts saw increased racial tension and often slow imptlementation of reform and change
Limitations of King’s achievements
shown when James Meredith - first ever AA to enter Uni of Mississippi in 1962 was shot and wounded on cr march in 1966
-> yeras between CR acts saw increased racial tension and often slow imptlementation of reform and change
changes to SNCC and CORE post 1964
previously non-violent embarked in new course
- SNCC member Stokely Carmichael in rally following event said simply ‘what we need is black power’
changes to SNCC and CORE post 1964
previously non-violent embarked in new course
- SNCC member Stokely Carmichael in rally following event said simply ‘what we need is black power’
How did the mood shift post 1960s?
change from cooperation with WA to isolation and confrontation - SNCC and CORE to exclude whites and celebrate AA culture, music, food and hair
- make more radical demands
Peniel Joseph on Black Power
2006
“transformed America’s racial, social and political landscape”
How much change actually was there? - some historians
some historians questioned degree of change between cr era of mpderation from mid-1950s to mid-1960s follwoed by more radical new course
some local AA leaders (King, Gloria Richardson and Robert Williams) urged self-defence
What was the Black Panther movement?
Huey Newton and Bobby Seale extended previous ideas of armed black groups to found the Black Panther movement in Oakwood Cali
What did Black Panthers do?
carried weapons openly and defence groups were formed against police brutality
in some areas fighting broke out in the streets
distinctive Black Panther salute was made by two AA athletes in 1968 Olympics much to consternatin of WA
- 1972 BP convention excluded whites
Political demands of Black Panthers
gone considerably beyond those of mid-1960s mainstream movement
- economic equality
- end to capitalist exploitation
- compensation in form of land and housing
- seperate juries for black people and protection from police intimidtion
(conflict bet white state and black culture - going back to Washington’s idea of dipping your bucket, being self-reliant)
Black Panther limitations
did not attract huge membership like Garvey and was heavily influenced by NOI
goal = diff. to realise
seperationist organisation gave rise to new confidence and pride in being black - sense white values could be challenged rather than accepted
achievements = limited and promote haronious society - unlikely
impact of violence in cities and the rise of militant AA groups
disappointed moderate supporters of cr
local and state authorities often reluctant to implement change
widespread rioting in ghettos in N cities resulted in 250 deaths, 10,000 serious injuries and 60,000 arrests - disillusioned many supporters of cr
movement split and King’s later campaigns against poverty (poor people’s campaign of 1967)
and Vietnam War were less successful
Nixon’s actions during the cr movement
recognised need to do more to reduce discontent and unrest
took up positive discrimination in his Philadelphia Plan and congress and SC backed policy
- Equal Opportunity Employment Act of 1972 helped to increase AA employment (cr taken on wider aspect than merely political rights)
Education in the 1970s
desegrgating education : radical idea of busing children from different areas into desegregated schools did make a difference
-> unpopular and declined in 1970s as middle class parents found suburban areas where there was no integration policy
- Nixon and Ford supported parental opposition to busing
- by mid-70s it was the Democrats most likely to implement change
Carter’s actions
criticised for limited measures -> economic problems began to dominate w/ higher oil prices causing inflation and general slump in us economy
-> disadvantaged AA - reduced opportunities for many AA (disproportionate no. of whom were dependent on state welfare
Reagan
some progress towards cr
-> Voting Rights Act 1982 - strenthened penalties against discrim.
-> C.R Restoration Act
-> gen. increase in no. of AA holding public office (100 in 64 v 8000 in 92)
BUT Reagan’s reductions of welfare benefits fell disproportioanlly on AA pop
-w/o central unified issue and faced w/ complex social and economic problems, activities and membership of cr fell from high points of 1960s
-leadership of King= inspiration but Jesse Jackson could not get Presidency
Who else helped in the fight for civil rights?
African American leaders
Booker T Washington aims
- help AA improve their eco. pos. (sol = vocational education)
-become leading spokesperson for AA after the death of Frederick Douglas
-eco. advancement = first step, eventual aim = equality and desegregation
- peaceful race relations - accept segregation
BTW methods
1900- est. National Negro Business League -> supported black enterprises
1911 - helped est. National Urban League -> helped blacks adjust to urban life
promoted vocational education at Tuskegee
generated publicity for the disadvantages facing AAs through speeches/writing
max poss association w/ white leaders esp. presidents
worked fro an end to lynching and softening of JC laws
gained confidence of WA and moral authority among AAs
recognised limitations of context he lived in
- “dip your bucket” (take responsibility for progress and accept white supremacy)
- seemed rational/practical given problems of resisting JC laws and lack of any developed white support for radical political change
BTW successes
gave many blacks vocational education - increased self-confidence and eco posoton
National Urban League helped find jobs, promoted better healthcare and edu, tried to prevent delinquency
his accomodationist philosophy = probably realistic : on one hand, Roosevelt in 1901 had Washington dine at WH (but on other hand told Congress that lynching of AA was a lesser crime than black raping og white women which ‘caused’ lynchings
knew chnage = gradual
association w/ president contributed to greater awareness of AA plight and boosted more - w/o BTW, unlikely pres would have avoided greater AA rep
worked quietly against segregation imp inorg of a conference in NY 1964 to discuss black voting rights
invited to White House by Roosevelt in 1901 and became informal advisor to Roosevelt and Taft - > maximum possible association with white leaders
What needs to be considered when looking at BTW impact? (+ve)
one study - “for 20 years Washington practically ruled Black America”
Education = key to emergence of other leaders e.g MLK
cooperation with white leaders yielded progress in cr in 1960s
stress an eco improvement anticipated post-1964 direction of the cr movement which sought more eco opp and saw key to progress as reducing poverty
promoked some opp to JC laws in secret but was too concerned about antagonising the white south and ending long-term progress in educational eco opp
What needs to be considered when looking at BTW impact? (-ve)
- like King, criticised by those who sought more radical aims and was hugely respected by white community - first AA to achieve this fame and respect
some black people saw him as an ‘Uncle Tom’ humiliatingly begging for support for aid and keeping blacks ‘down’ by emphasis on vocational training
by his death, most AA preferred actions of DuBois
W.E.B DuBois
1868-1963
born a freeman in N, educated in top universities, part of ‘talented tenth’
DuBois aims
effect greater economic and educational equality and legal/political equality
BTW initially aimed for “seperate but equal” but DuBois initially aimed at rapid racial integration -> their disagreements helped propel DuBois in to the foundation of NAACP in 1909
DuBois methods
raise awareness among AA by establishing a national org and publicising ideas in ‘The Crisis’
NAACP tried to promote black equality’ desegregation through law courts (although disagreements in 1934 over methods caused him to leave)
wanted to put new emphasis on AA nationalism and self-help; talked about a black eco “nation within the nation” -> advocacy of separatism infuriated integrationists within NAACP
The Niagora Movement, est in 1905, pressed for more radical change and laid foundation for NAACP in 1909
accepted alliance with white supporters
DuBois achievements (+ve)
none of BTW’s had the impact of DuBois’ ‘The Souls of Black Folk’ (1903)
shifted attention to the need to publicise cr through the press and to organise but this radicalism led him along different paths
his interest in Pan-Africanism = shared by Garvey
his belief in organising = shared by Randolph
helped to increase AA awareness and pride in culture
est of NAACP = greatest achievement -> they went on to achieve much
anti-lynching campaign that DuBois initiated at NAACP helped decrease lynching numbers by publicing thier horrors
NAACP won first great court victory in 1915 against grandfather clause
DuBois achievements (-ve)
never attained fame/respect of Washington - possibly sought too much too soon
in early decades, NAACP did not attract many members, S, black, middle-class usually follwoed BTW accommodationism
Marcus Garvey
1887-1940
Garvey aims
make AA proud of themselves and their culture
unite blacks throughout the world
elevate the blackest of blacks above the light-skinned blacks who traditionally dominated AA movements
separtism and return to Africa
Garvey methods
publicising of his ideas and inspiring speaker w/ a gift for memorable phrases
edited ‘Negro World’ which soo nhad a circulation over 100 therefore most popular black weekly
most contraversial method = grandoise style - elected ‘President-General’ of UNIA and provisional President of Africa
-> ridiculed by many, but many AAs said that he made them feel proud
Garvey achievements
within a few months of his arrival, UNIA had 7,000 members (but once a person joined UNIA there was little he could do other than attend its moral boosting meetings and invest in business schemes
commendable increase in black American pride
Harlem Renaissance occured soon after Garvey achieved fame in USA
historians agree that UNIA was the first protest movement that gained popularity among AAs
influential AAs e.g Adam Clayton Powell and Black Power and Black Panther activists of 60s/70s recognised their debt to Garvey
Following should be considered in considering impact
Slogan “Africa for the Africans at home and abroad” this glorification of Africanism prefigured Black Power but his eccentricity makes him alone figure
claimed that G + J = black
set himself up as the president of the Republic of Africa with a Napoleanic-style aristocracy of dukes, ceremonies and parades
collected $10 mil and attracted
Philip Randolph
1890-1979
influenced by DuBois’ writings
Randolph aims
improve living standards and raise political awareness of black people
Randolph methods
organisation of AA workers into powerful TU that could negotiate better wages and working conditions
advocated collaboration with white trade unionists
knew that eco power was one of the few advantages that AAs had
-> used that power in a militant fashion during WW2 and Cold War when hr threatened withdrawal of black labour in time of crisis in order to gain concessions for AAs
elected President of Communist-dominated National Negro Congress which aimed to promote CR and eco equality for AAs
publicised ideas in magazine ‘The Messenger’
Randolph achievements
threatened mass march on Washington - new majot tactic (also helped to organise March on Washinton)
established first really successful AA TU but many AA workers were not unionised until GD encouraged desperate workers to join unions
achievements of National Negro Congress = limited as a result of suspicion with which most Americans (inc. black churches and NAACP) regared Communism
Forced Pres Roosevelt during WW2 into action - set up FEPC to promote equal employment opportunities in defence industries
during CW, his call for black draft resistance helped force Pres Truman into the desegregation of the armed forces but such militancy often alienated others
brought about greater AA pride and awareness and had shown importance and potential of organised black activity and pressure
What should be considered when assessing Randolph’s impact?
understanding of power of non-violent mass demonstration was his key contribution to CR movement
used economic power of organised labour
put considerable pressure on Truman to end segrgation in armed forces in 1948
use of marches, demonstration, effective organisation, working with white sympathisers end putting pressure on administrators paid off in long run - > these tactics (derived in part from Gandhi’ resistance) moved the cr movement on more than other leaders had done and laid basis of King’s success
DuBois, Washington, Garvey and Randolph summary
DuBois = inspiration but did not org support in considerable numbers
Washington = saw importance of eco development but had no interest in pol aims/mobilisation
Garvey = could attract large no but this aims were not specific enough to be achievable
Randolph = key figure in linking the aspirations/ideals of previous leaders w/ org necessary to put eff pressure on administrations
