Affirmative Action

Question 1

Outline key factors of gender inequality in the British workforce

Answer 1

Women are under-represented at higher levels of management across all sectors
Women earn 20% less than male counter-parts

Question 2

Outline the Equality Act 2010

Answer 2

Applies to public sector companies
Lawful to take gender into account as long as qualifications are equal
Requires:
1. Monitoring to identify barriers
2. Actions to remove barriers
3. Annual report to government agency

Question 3

What is Affirmative Action?

Answer 3

Action favouring those who tend to suffer from discrimination

Question 4

Outline ways of addressing barriers

Answer 4

Calculate proportion of positions/promotions earned by women (POSITIONS)
Calculate proportion of qualified women in the candidate pool (CANDIDATES)
Estimate proportion of qualified women in the broader work-force (WORK-FORCE)

Question 5

If there’s a Candidates < Work-force discrepancy where is the location of the potential barriers?

Answer 5

In the recruitment procedure

Question 6

If there’s a Positions < Candidates discrepancy where is the location of the potential barriers?

Answer 6

Selection procedures

Question 7

If there’s a Positions < Work-force discrepancy where is the location of the potential barriers?

Answer 7

Selection or recruitment procedures

Question 8

Are individuals still subtly biased?

Answer 8

Modern prejudice is expressed in subtle ways

Positivity bias - low-status groups are evaluated less positively than high-status groups, so not derogated explicitly

Question 9

Do structural/institutional barriers still exist?

Answer 9

Even with sincere attempts at impartiality at the individual level, policies and practices may still favour certain groups:

1. Advertising opportunities on a limited bias - excludes groups who have not been part of these networks
2. Providing a narrow category of opportunities to all - excludes groups who can’t take advantage of them
3. Differential impact of standards and criteria - groups may be adversely affected by the status quo.

Question 10

Outline an example of advertising opportunities on a limited bias

Answer 10

Position of promotion to be filled quickly (internally)
Department heads asked to nominate qualified candidates
Typically nominate individuals they already know well e.g. from a golf game
‘Old boys network’

Question 11

Outline an example of providing a narrow category of opportunities to all

Answer 11

Male professor wanted to help PhD students afford costs of attending professional conferences
Held prize draw for bed in his hotel room at no cost
Only male students won even though more than 50% of the PhD students were female
The female students never entered the draw

Question 12

Outline an example of differential impact of standards and criteria

Answer 12

Setting unnecessarily high standards that some groups fail to meet
Using equipment and resources that suit some groups in particular e.g. antigravity suits for fighter pilots

Question 13

What is objection 1 to AA?

Answer 13

We don’t need AA because everyone knows discrimination is wrong. Employers and managers can be trusted to treat each individual fairly

Question 14

What is objection 2 to AA?

Answer 14

Bias will be eliminated once it is identified. This is the premise of anti-discrimination laws that already exist, so we do not need additional AA programs

Question 15

Do victims always come forward?

Answer 15

Individuals may not attribute negative outcome to discriminaton:
-Attribution theory: internal vs. external attributions
Individuals often do not file formal complaints:
- lack of knowledge or resources
-discomfort with confrontation
-fear of derogation by colleagues
-fear of retaliation from authorities

Question 16

Do observers always notice bias?

Answer 16

There is the assumption that those who are not directly affected by bias are best positioned to identify and challenge it
BUT most observers are not in a position to notice bias, because they do not have access to information for the entire organisation

Question 17

What is objection 3 to AA?

Answer 17

Things will continue to get better because society is always moving towards justice and equality. We don’t need special AA programs to help us get there.

Question 18

How is stereotype threat linked to the need for AA?

Answer 18

Negative effects among female employees: lower well-being, lower sense of belonging, higher burnout and intentions to quit the job
Vicious cycle: members of stereotyped groups may perform worse, which reinforces the stereotype of incompetence

Question 19

How is psychological disengagement linked to the need for AA?

Answer 19

Existence of inequality may encourage members of disadvantaged groups to disengage from the domain
Research has demonstrated two such strategies: discounting feedback received in the domain (becoming a rebel who doesn’t take the standards seriously) and devaluing and then leaving the domain entirely
Vicious cycle: disengagement reinforces the idea that the disadvantaged group ‘doesn’t really belong’

Question 20

Outline ways of revising recruitment procedures to address barriers to gender equality

Answer 20

1. Reduce bias and discrimination
   - formalise advertising: increases access and information for all groups
2. Increase representation of women
   - expand recruitment beyond standard strategies: increases proportion of women who consider applying for position/promotion
   - offer training and mentoring programs: increases knowledge and opportunities

Question 21

Outline ways of revising selection procedures to address barriers to gender equality

Answer 21

1. Reduce bias and discrimination
   - formalise selection criteria
   - ensure no differential impact of criteria
   - make process transparent and subject to review
   - have different perspectives on selection committee
2. Increase representation of women
   - Adjust selection criteria, gender as a plus factor if other factors are equal.

Question 22

What are some positive effects of AA?

Answer 22

Increased representation of target group
AA hires typically as strong as non-AA hires
Organisation’s performance does not suffer

Question 23

What are some negative effects of AA?

Answer 23

Representation of target group is still too low
Stigma of being selected under AA policy
Negative views of (presumed) beneficiaries

Question 24

How can we address the problem of the representation still being too low?

Answer 24

To reduce opposition can educate employees about need for AA and highlight the organisation’s support for AA

Question 25

How can we address the stigma of being selected under AA policy?

Answer 25

The stigma effect is reduced when positive feedback is provided
Establish support networks and programs

Question 26

How can we address the negative views of (presumed) beneficiaries?

Answer 26

Provide positive information about all employees and highlight the organisation’s support for all employees.

Question 27

How can we explain opposition to AA as a function of the program?

Answer 27

Opposition to AA increases as the weight given to target group membership increases
Most supported:
-non-discrimination statement
-add recruitment strategies
-training and mentoring
least supported:
-adjust selection criteria (e.g. gender as a plus factor)

Question 28

How can we explain opposition to AA as a function of the individual?

Answer 28

People who perceive an AA program to violate principles of justice or fairness are more strongly opposed to the program
People with higher levels of prejudice are more strongly opposed to AA that benefits the relevant target group.

Question 29

How can we explain opposition to AA as a function of the social context?

Answer 29

When rationale is provided for AA program, opposition to AA is lower
When leaders publicly support an AA program, opposition is lower.