Advanced Higher Research Methods Flashcards
Advantages of Case Studies
Disadvantages of Case Studies
What is a Case Study
A case study is used to provide a detailed and deep understanding of what is being studied by utilising an in-depth study of a particular group of people , organisation or event.
The scope of this method allows for a detailed analysis about perticular people, events or organisations
A primary source that provides quantitative and qualitative data
Examples of two Modern Case studies
A 2013 study carried out by the BBC in collaboration with Scottish Federation of Housing Associations highlighting the impact of the Bedroom Tax on individual people
Demos used a case study approach to look at voters’ motivations, in ‘Nothing to Fear but Fear Itself?’ As a result, they found that travel patterns and mobility, and acceptance or resistance to social liberalism all played significant roles in voting behaviour in the EU Referendum.
How to format research methods question
Point
Explain and use buzz word
Perspective of researcher
Example
Relation to researcher
Link to question
Link second and third paragraphs using words such as aditionally and however, try and synthesise
When are surveys used?
The choice is used when the researcher wants to conduct quantitative research from a wide range of people using principles of sampling
What is a longitudinal survey
Done over a period of years to take into account changing attitudes
What is a cross sectional survey
a one off survey
What are three advantages of surveys
Provides statistical information
Standardised questions allow for quick, accurate computerised analysis
Can compare results from different groups
What is a pilot study
When you do a trial survey to ensure questions are properly understood
What are two advantages and disadvantages of a pilot study
Avoids time and money being spent on an inadequate survey
allows for an queries or discrepencies in interpretation of the question to be identified and rectified
Disadvantages
Can be time consuming and expensive
Survey could be out of date by the time you’ve finished the pilot
What are two advantages and disadvantages of a face to face survey
Higher response rate
Responses can be elaborated especially if interviewer is skilled
Disadvantages
More private if it is anonymous so there is less of an embarrsement factor
Could be costly to get a good interviewer
What is an example of a face to face survey
Crime survey England and wales, which aims to provide robust trends on a consistent basis for the crime types and population it covers. The CSEW provides a better reflection of the extent of crime than police recorded figures, as the survey asks about crimes that are not reported to or recorded by the police.
What are two advantages of a postal questionnare
Fairly cheap, easy option
People have plenty of time to fill them in so can give considered answers
What
What are two disadvantages of a postal questionnare
Time-consuming method by the time the responses are returned
Difficult to check reliability of sample and get a representative sample which affects validity
Why are official statistics chosen
These methods are chosen when the researcher needs superficial information about a large number of people and they can be used to examine broad trends, provide quantitative information
What is the range and scope of official statistics
The range includes any topic that the government provides statistics for provided the data required is quantitative, for example, crime and unemployment
The scope is limited to fairly superficial factual information, which is provided by official statistics though they can be used to compare different types of groups
What is an examples of official crime statistics
National fraud intellegence Burea collates fraud data from a wide range of sources including financial fraud action UK
two advantages of official crime statistics
provide information about the whole population
Good indicator of broad trends in social behaviour
What are two disadvantages of official statistics
Official statistics may use different indicators from those that researchers prefer to use, for example, definition of social class
Information is collected for other purposes so may not ideally meet the needs of the research
Example of a survey
2020 Ipsos Mori survey shows half of british people support the BLM movement, whereas 75% of people from ethnic minorities support the movement
What are focus groups
Focus groups are groups of people who get together to discuss issues and come up with ideas.
The number in the group can vary and so does the composition.
Sometimes it is a group of like minded people and other times it is made up of a representative sample of different people.
These aim to find out peoples opinions on a variety of issues through organised discussion and interaction.
What are two key features of a focus group
Role of moderator is vital so needs to have high quality interpersonal skills
Research could be longitudinal
what is an examples of a focus group
Public attitudes to youth crime: report on focus group research.
(Jessica Jacobson and Amy Kirby, Institute for Criminal Policy Research,
Home Office, 30th July 2012)
What are four advantages of a focus group
Gain a wide range of views about several topics and these can be carefully chosen
Can be used as preliminary research which could then generate further research
Particularly good for gaining several perspectives about the same topic
Gain insights related to peoples shared understanding about issues
What are four disadvantages of a focus group
Expensive and time consuming method of research
The researcher has less control over the data produced than in quantitative studies or one to one interviews
It will probably be a small group so not statistically valid
Some people could be easily swayed so strong characters could dominate
What is the aim of participant observation
The aim of this method is to observe the group behaviour as naturally as possible
The choice of this method means that the researcher wants qualitative research with in depth information about feelings, interactions and processes.
This method could put the researcher in danger and can raise ethical considerations e.g. Is it moral to get involved in criminal action if you are observing gang behaviour.
What are four key features of participant observation
The observation can mean covert participation when the group studied will not know that their behaviour is being researched
The observation can be overt which means the group do know that their behaviour is being studied
If it is overt, it is possible only key people know the researcher’s true identity and the aims of the research
It is a primary source and provides qualitative data
What is an example of participant observation
Sudhir Venkatesh (2009) – “Gang Leader for a Day” - Study of the Black Kings, an African American gang who sold crack in Chicago.
What are four advantages of participant observation
Provides a realistic in-depth study of social behaviour and interaction
It can produce small scale detailed research
It is useful for studying interactions and processes over a lengthy period of time
It is helpful for understanding the opinions of the group because behaviour is seen in its natural setting
What are four disadvantages of participant observation
The reliability of the research could be affected by the researcher’s role within the group.
It requires a large time commitment from the researcher and this will increase the costs
It is difficult to avoid bias especially when the observation is covert
It can be difficult to record information accurately
What are census studies
The census is taken everyone 10 years and is a survey of the total population of a country.
It is a structured questionnaire and is used to find out facts about family size, house size, car ownership etc and how these have changed over a 10-year period.
This establishes trends, which is why the UK’s figures are published in Social Trends.
These statistics can be used to predict future needs like house and road building.
What is observation
The aim of this method is to observe group behaviour without the researcher taking part in the group activities.
The choice of this method is used when the researcher wants to study a group so that the group are unaware that they are being studied and therefore do not modify their behaviour.
The range of topics is limited to those that have a significant visual component, for example, studying the body language of social behaviour in public places.
What are four key features of observation
It is a primary source of information
It may be overt or covert observation
It can be qualitative and quantitative, for example, can watch and record information but also count different reactions (watch shop-lifters, count particular type of behaviour)
It would probably involve video-recording
What are four advantages of observation
Video evidence can be examined and therefore verified any others which improves its reliability
Easy to record data.
The researcher cannot influence the behaviour so the method is fairly objective and unbiased
It allows a useful insight into a phenomenon, and sidesteps the ethical and practical difficulties of setting up a large and cumbersome participation research project.
What are four disadvantages of observation
Covert observation can raise the ethical questions of whether this is acceptable
Overt observation may risk the ‘Hawthorne effect’ as people know they are being watched.
Can be times consuming and expensive
Meaning of what is observed can be open to different interpretations
What is analysis of newspapers and other media
The aim is to gather current information from a variety of types of media for comparison.
The choice is used when the researcher wants to get research from secondary sources, which give different viewpoints.
What are four advantages of newspapers
A cheap and available method of getting up to date information
Some are also available on internet
Provides fairly in depth information which includes commentary and quotations from various experts and analysis of topics
Can give different perspectives on a topic
what are four disadvantages of newspapers
This is a secondary source which depends on other peoples’choices, opinions
Newspapers are not objective sources
Newspapers often exaggerate/sensationalise to raise their circulation figures
Popular press in particular can depersonalise the event and the real issue is lost
What are opinion polls
These are a type of questionnaire/survey so information about how surveys operate and sampling techniques provide relevant information.
As these surveys tend to be political, constituencies are often used as the basis of the sample so this means that constituencies chosen have to be representative of the population.
These surveys are commissioned by a range of organisations which include newspapers, TV, pressure groups
What four things does an opinion poll need to be representative
Need constituencies from different geographical areas, North, South, urban, rural
Need constituencies with different types of people, black, white, Asia, middle and working class, male and female
Need marginal, safe constituencies
Ideally sample should have a mixture of floating voters and party loyalists
What are some factors on the reliavility of opinion polls
The results are not always reliable, as during Donald Trumps presidential campaign, the polls put democratic rival Hillary Clinton ahead.
The sample size is usually about 1000 which is said to give plus/minus 3% accuracy.
What are four reasons why opinion polls can get it wrong
Sampling errors (not representative, too small)
People do not always respond truthfully
People can change their minds and can be influenced by results of polls (see below)
People may respond to questions but not bother to vote
What is the aim of structured interviews
The aim of these is usually to get factual information.
The choice of this method would mean the researcher wanted to collect a lot of superficial information over a large geographical area and/or from a large number of people.
What are key features of a structured interview
This method usually involves face to face interviews where a pre-set list of questions is used which require a limited response but could be done via phone or internet.
It is like a questionnaire but is face to face.
It is a primary source providing quantitative data.
Questions need to be clear and unambiguous.
What are four advantages of structured interviews
It is good for gaining factual information
Results are easy to quantity
It gets a good response rate as it is an interview situation
It is cheap and if a short questionnaire is used fairly quick method of collecting data
What are four disadvantages of structured interviews
It can be time-consuming if the sample is large
Issues cannot be explored in-depth
Questions can themselves be biased and not allow for certain answers, for example, the answer the respondent wants may not be there
It is an unsuitable method for finding information about processes
what is the aim of unstructured interviews
The Aim of this method is to get detailed information from the people interviewed.
The choice will be influenced by time and cost and the type of information required, for example, if there is a need for in-depth information about social behaviour.
What are four key features of unstructured interviews
It is a primary source of information and provides qualitative data.
Questions are not necessarily pre set
It could start with prepared structured questions but then is flexible
The researcher can cover a broad range of issues
What are four disadvantages of unstructured interviews
Can sometimes be hard to maintain the focus of the interview
Open to bias as the researcher can easily influence the respondent’s replies e.g. by giving non-verbal clues
Some people may not agree to be interviewed so the sample could be composed of like minded people
It is difficult to ensure objectivity when the questions are not standardised
What are four advantages of semi-structured interviews
Allows researchers to establish “verstehen” — understanding from the perspective of the interviewee.
Question “scripts” or lists (interview guides) ensure a degree of similarity in the questions asked to each respondent, keeping results more reliable.
Qualitative interviewing is focused on the interviewee’s point of view rather than the researcher’s concerns, thus reducing interviewer bias.
Respondents’ views of the world, attitudes, motivations, feelings and emotions can be explored.
What are four disadvantages of semi-structured interviews
Information gained may be untrustworthy — based on respondents lying, forgetting or being ignorant of the issue in question.
Interviewer presence (if viewed as unfriendly) may influence or limit interviewees’ responses.
Interviewer presence may lead to “interviewer bias” — consciously or unconsciously directing interviewees to a certain type of response.
Interviews are unnatural social situations (ecological validity) which will always affect the behaviour of interviewees.
What are four advantages of internet questionnares
Fairly cheap option
Anonymous so no embarrassment factor
People have plenty of time to consider their answers
Can get access to people worldwide so broaden the scope of the survey
What are three disadvantages of internet questionnaire
Sample restricted to those with internet access so not representative
People may not take it seriously and give considered answers
Type of person who is prepared to respond could slant the results
What are four advantages of phone questionnares
higher response rate
Fairly cheap option
Easy access and will get sensible responses if interviewer skilled
Still fairly anonymous so less of an embarrassment factor
What are four disadvantages of phone questionnares
May not be suitable for certain groups without phones (homeless)
People are ex directory/use mobile phones
Time of phoning could affect type of person (e.g. age) that respond
Difficult to ensure that you get a representative sample or indeed know who is answering
What is simple random sampling
The basic method is random sampling, which means that everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected.
In a class setting, you could pick 5 names out a hat, or stick a pin to select a name.
Nowadays computers are used to select randomly.
You can, however, improve on random sampling so as to increase the chance that your sample will reflect the characteristics of the total population.
What is stratified sampling
This is an attempt to make your sample as representative as possible.
You need to find out the general characteristics of the population you are interested in and then divide this into strata maybe according to age and gender.
A sample is then drawn randomly from each stratum you have identified.
This is like putting all the males aged over 65 in a hat and then pulling them out randomly.
What is cluster sampling
It would be time-consuming and expensive to survey throughout Britain so instead you select certain areas at random in certain parts of the country and this is called cluster sampling.
It is easier to collect data from a smaller geographical area.
What is systemic sampling
This means that you take every nth person from your sampling frame.
You could, for example, if your sample was to be 100 take every 10th person from 1000 names on the electoral register.
What is snowball sampling
This is used if you want to study a group that does not have a sampling frame.
This method is useful when people do not want to be identified or they are difficult to find (e.g. Criminals)
You would have to make contact with some-one in your population (youth gangsters) and having gained their confidence get them to give you further names for research, hence creating a snowball effect.
It is likely to be an unrepresentative sample.
What is quota sampling
Most market research companies use the type of sampling called quota sampling.
This is a cheap and accurate method.
The interviewer is told to select and interview an exact number from each of the groups that are in the population.
The number of people in each group, and thus the proportion in each group in the sample, will be in the same proportion as in the population.
What are some problems with quota sampling
You need to know a lot about the population you are studying and this is not always the case
Interviewers need to be well trained and experienced to accurately select people to fill their quotas.
What are issues with sampling methods
It is not easy to get a representative sample as people are not always honest about certain things and may, for example, not identify with a particular social class.
Without a representative and very large sample, there are question marks over the validity of a survey and the reliability of the conclusions.
It remains, however, a popular and fairly cheap method of collecting peoples’ opinions
how to be representative in a sample
Political and Social sampling will often use constituencies as the basis of the sample so this needs to include:
Different geographical areas in country (North/South)
Urban/rural areas
Safe/marginal seats
Affluent/Deprived areas
They also have to include different types of people
Age groups
Gender
Ethnic groups
Social class
Floating voters/loyalists
What are four advantages of primary sources
The researcher is in control of how the information is gathered.
The researcher can collect information to find the precise information necessary for the research
The researcher can ensure that specific questions are asked
The researcher can amend and modify the research if necessary
What are two disadvantages of primary sources
Primary research is time consuming and costly
Qualitative methods will tend to be biased
What are two advantages of secondary sources
Saves times and money as research is already available
Can provide information not easily found elsewhere
What are four disadvantages to secondary sources
The reliability is questionable, as you cannot usually check this
Other peoples’ research may be biased
Purpose behind the research could be different therefore it may not meet your requirements
Could be time-consuming to sift through a large amount of information
Four examples of modern qualitative secondary sources
Diary entries
Facebook & Twitter posts,
Letters and other personal accounts
Newspapers
Three advantages to qualitative secondary sources
Sometimes the only source of information available on a particular topic over time.
Can provide a gateway to the past to understanding the concerns and attitudes of people at the time. This may include letter columns in newspapers as well as comment postings on online newspapers such as the Guardian.
Analysing historical documents is useful in allowing researchers to gain insights into the beliefs, ideologies and values held by their authors.
What are four disadvantages of secondary qualitative sources
Credibility? How can you detect exaggeration and biases in an individual diary entry or post?
Entries may reflect the interests and belief of the author and could be selected to portray them in a more positive light.
Newspaper accounts may reflect the values of the newspaper creating the report.
Are the accounts truly representative?
Four simple moral guidelines research ethics
Participants must be informed.
They must not be deceived.
Their consent must be given.
They have the right to withdraw.
EXEMPLAR: MILGRAM’S OBEDIENCE EXPERIMENT
Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted a series of obedience experiments during the 1960s that led to some surprising results.
When Milgram posed the question - If a person in a position of authority ordered you to deliver a 400-volt electrical shock to another person, would you follow orders? - to a group of Yale University students, it was predicted that no more than 3 out of 100 participants would deliver the maximum shock. In reality, 65% of the participants in Milgram’s study delivered the maximum shocks.
He felt he had to deceive them for the experiment to work despite causing the participants distress.
What is reliability
Will the findings be the same if the study is repeated?
What is validity
To what extent do the research findings provide a true picture of what is studied?
What are cohort studies
A group of people born at the same time will be studied over a period of years to see how their different social and economic backgrounds affect their lives (7 UP), their educational achievement etc.
Examples of online surveys
Survey Monkey
Example of online results being skewed to younger generations
2019 Labour, day off General election vote labour was trending yet the conservatives won their greatest majority since 1987
