Advanced Clinical Concepts Flashcards
What is ARDS?
The exchange of oxygen for carbon dioxide in the lungs is inadequate for oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production within the body’s cells. ARDS is an unexpected, catastrophic pulmonary complication occurring in a person with no previous pulmonary problems. Clients are critically ill and are managed in an intensive care setting. The mortality rate is high (50%).
What are interventions to prevent complications of clients on mechanical ventilation with ARDS?
Interventions to prevent complications of clients on mechanical ventilation with ARDS: • Elevate head of bed (HOB) to at least 30 degrees. • Assist with daily awakening (“sedation vacation”). • Implement a comprehensive oral hygiene program. • Implement a comprehensive mobilization program.
When do you suction a patient with ARDS?
Suction only when secretions are present.
When and how do you perform the Allen test?
Before drawing a sample for ABGs from the radial artery, perform the Allen test to assess collateral circulation. Make the client’s hand blanch by obliterating both the radial and the ulnar pulses. Then release the pressure over the ulnar artery only. If flow through the ulnar artery is good, flushing will be seen immediately. The Allen test is then positive, and the radial artery can be used for puncture. If the Allen test is negative, repeat on the other arm. If this test is also negative, seek another site for arterial puncture. The Allen test ensures collateral circulation to the hand if thrombosis of the radial artery should follow the puncture.
What are the 4 cardinal signs of ARDS in children?
Cardinal signs of Acute Respiratory Failure in children are: 1. restlessness 2. tachypnea, 3. tachycardia 4. diaphoresis.
What PCO2 or PO2 level on what % of O2 signifies respiratory failure?
PCO2 >45 or PO2 <60 on 50% O2 signifies respiratory failure.
What % of O2 should a child in severe distress receive?
100% O2
What PO2 value indicates respiratory failure in adults?
PO2 <60mm Hg
What blood value indicates hypercapnia?
PO2 >45mm Hg
Identify the condition that exists when the PO2 is 60%.
Hypoxemia
List 3 symptoms of respiratory failure in adults.
- dypsnea/tachypnea 2. intercostal and sternal retractions 3. cyanosis
List 4 common causes of respiratory failure in children.
- congenital heart disease 2. infection or sepsis 3. respiratory distress syndrome 4. fluid overload or dehydration
ARDS: Nursing Assessment
A. Dyspnea, hyperpnea, crackles (or rales) B. Intercostal retractions C. Cyanosis, pallor D. Hypoxemia: Po2 60% E. Diffuse pulmonary infiltrates seen on chest radiograph as “white-out” appearance F. Verbalized anxiety, restlessness
ARDS: Nursing Interventions
A. Position client for maximal lung expansion. B. Monitor client for signs of hypoxemia and oxygen toxicity. C. Monitor breath sounds for pneumothorax. D. Provide emotional support to decrease anxiety and allow ventilator to “work” the lungs. E. Monitor client hemodynamically with essential vital signs and cardiac monitor. F. Monitor arterial blood gases (ABGs) routinely. G. Monitor vital organ status: central nervous system (CNS), level of consciousness, renal system output, and myocardium (apical pulse, blood pressure [BP]). H. Monitor fluid and electrolyte balance. I. Monitor metabolic status through routine lab work.
ABGs: pH PCO2 HCO3 PO2 O2% O2 Content (Arterial, Venous) Base Excess
pH: 7.35-7.45 PCO2: 35-45mm Hg HCO3: 21-28mEq/L PO2: 80-100mm Hg O2%: 95-100% O2 Content: Arterial 15-22%, Venous 11-16% Base Excess: 0 +-2mEq/L
What is shock?
Widespread, serious reduction of tissue perfusion (lack of O2 and nutrients) that, if prolonged, leads to generalized impairment of cellular functioning. Severe shock leads to widespread cellular injury and impairs the integrity of the capillary membranes. Fluid and osmotic proteins seep into the extravascular spaces, further reducing cardiac output. A vicious circle of decreased perfusion to all cellular level activities ensues. All organs are damaged, and if perfusion problems persist, the damage can be permanent.
What are the 4 stages of hypovolemic shock?
- Blood loss <10% Apprehension, restlessness; increased HR; cool, pale skin; fatigue. Arteriolar constriction; incr ADH production; art pressure maintained; CO usually normal; selective reduction in blood flow to skin and muscle beds. 2. Blood loss 15-25% Flat neck veins w/ delayed cap refill; incr HR and RR; pallor, diaphoresis, cool skin; decr UO; sunken, soft eyeballs; confusion. Marked reduction in CO; art pressure decline; adrenergic comp response resulting in tachycardia, tachypnea, cutaneous vasoconstriction, and oliguria; decr cerebral perfusion. 3. Progressive Stage Edema; incr blood viscosity; excessively low BP; dysthymia, ischemia, and MI; weak, thready, or absent peripheral pulses. Rapid circ deteroiration; decr CO; decr tissue perf; reduced blood vol. 4. Irreversible Stage Profound hypoTN, unresponsive to vasopressors; severe hypoxemia, unresponsive to O2 admin; anuria, renal shutdown; HR slows with cardiac/respiratory arrest. Inevitable death d/t cell destruct; multiple organ system failure.
What is distributive shock?
Distributive Shock (Anaphylactic, Neurogenic, and Septic Shock)—results from excessive vasodilation and the impaired distribution of blood flow.
Relationship between shock, SIRS, and MODS?
All types of shock can lead to systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) and result in multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS).
How do you position a patient with cardiogenic shock with pulmonary edema?
If cardiogenic shock exists in the presence of pulmonary edema (i.e., from pump failure), position client to reduce venous return (high Fowler position with legs down) to decrease further venous return to the left ventricle.
Shock: Nursing Assessment
A. Vital signs 1. Tachycardia (pulse >100 bpm) 2. Tachypnea (respirations >24 min) 3. BP decrease (systolic 1.020 indicates hypovolemia.
Shock: Nursing Interventions
A. Monitor arterial pressure by understanding the concepts related to arterial pressure (Table 3-3). B. Monitor BP, pulse, respirations, and arrhythmias every 15 minutes or more often, depending on stability of client. C. Assess urine output every hour to maintain at least 30 mL/hr. D. Notify health care provider if urine output drops below 30 mL/hr (reflects decreased renal perfusion and may result in acute renal failure). E. Administer fluids as prescribed by provider to improve preload: blood, colloids, or electrolyte solutions until designated CVP is reached (Table 3-4). F. Remember client’s bed position is dependent on cause of shock. G. Administer medications IV (not intramuscular [IM] or subcutaneous) until perfusion improves in muscles and subcutaneous tissue. H. Keep client warm; increase heat in room or put warm blankets (not too hot) on client. I. Keep side rails up during all procedures; clients in shock experience mental confusion and may easily be injured by falls. J. Obtain blood for lab work as prescribed: complete blood count (CBC), electrolytes, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine (renal damage), lactate (sepsis), and blood gases (oxygenation and ventilation). K. When administering vasopressors or adrenergic stimulants, such as epinephrine (Bronkaid), dopamine (Intropin), dobutamine (Dobutrex), norepinephrine (Levophed), or isoproterenol (Isuprel): 1. Administer through volume-controlled pump. 2. Monitor hemodynamic status every 5 to 15 minutes. 3. Watch intravenous site carefully for extravasation and tissue damage. 4. Ask health care provider for target mean systolic BP (usually 80 to 90 mm Hg). L. When administering vasodilators, such as hydralazine (Apresoline), nitroprusside (Nipride), or labetalol hydrochloride (Normodyne, Trandate) to counteract effects of vasopressors: 1. Wait for precipitous decrease or increase in BP if prescribed together. 2. If drop in BP occurs, decrease vasodilator infusion rate first; then increase vasopressor. 3. If BP increases precipitously, decrease vasopressor rate first; then increase rate of vasodilator. 4. Obtain blood work as prescribed: CBC, electrolytes, BUN, creatinine (renal damage), and blood gases (oxygenation). 5. Glucose levels should be maintained at 140 to 180 mg/dL. M. Provide family support: 1. Notify appropriate support persons for families waiting during crisis—call spiritual advisor, other family members, or anyone the family thinks will be supportive. 2. At intervals, notify family of actions and progress or lack of progress in realistic terms. 3. Collaborate with health care provider before notifying family of medical interventions.
Arterial Pressure: MAP CO PR CVP
Arterial Pressure: MAP: level of pressure in central art bed measured indirectly via BP or directly via art cath; MAP = CO x TPR = [SBP + 2DBP] / 3 CO: vol of blood ejected by LV per unit of time; SV x HR = norm 4-6L/min PR: resistance to blood flow CVP: pressure in RA; norm 2-6mm Hg
What is DIC? + random case study of woman in automobile accident
Coagulation disorder with paradoxical thrombosis and hemorrhage. You are caring for a woman who was in a severe automobile accident several days earlier. She has several fractures and internal injuries. The exploratory laparotomy was successful in controlling the bleeding. However, today you find that this client is bleeding from her incision, is short of breath, and has a weak, thready pulse, cold and clammy skin, and hematuria. What do you think is wrong with the client, and what would you expect to do about it? These are typical signs and symptoms of DIC crisis. Expect to administer IV heparin to block the formation of thrombin (Coumadin does not do this). However, the client described is already past the coagulation phase and into the hemorrhagic phase. Her care would include administration of clotting factors, along with palliative treatment of the symptoms as they arise. (Her prognosis is poor.)
What are the types of blood products administered?
- Packed RBCs
- less danger of fluid overload
- for acute blood loss
- Frozen RBCs
- must be used within 24hrs of thawing
- for auto transfusion; used infrequently bc filters out most of WBCs
- Platelets
- “agitate” bag periodically
- for bleeding c/b thrombocytopenia
- FFP
- being replaced by albumin plasma expanders…
- for bleeds c/b deficiency in clot factors
- Albumin
- albumin 25g/100mL = 500mL plasma
- for hypovolemic shock, hypoalbuminemia
- Cryoprecipitates
- for tx hemophelia
- replacement of clot factors, esp factor VIII and fibrinogen
What are the types of transfusion reactions?
- Acute hemolytic
- assess chills, fever, low back pain, flushing, tachycardia, hypotension progressing to acute renal fail, shock, and cardiac arrest
- STOP TRANSFUSION, change tubing, infuse NS; treat for shock; draw blood samples for testing; monitor hourly UO; diuretics as ordered
- Febrile hemolytic (most common)
- assess sudden chills and fever, headaches, flushing, anxiety, and muscle pain
- give antipyretics as ordered
- Mild allergic
- assess flushing, utricaria (hives)
- give antihistamines as ordered
- Anaphylactic / severe allergic
- assess nxiety, utricaria, wheezing, progressive cyanosis leading to shock / cardiac arrest
- STOP TRANSFUSION. INITIATE CPR.
- Circulatory overload
- assess cough, dyspnea, pulm congest, h/a, HTN
- place pt in upright position with feet in dependent position and give diuretics, O2, morphine; slow IV rate
- Sepsis
- assess rapid onset chills, high fever, vomiting, hypoTN, or shock
- ENSURE AIRWAY, obtain blood culture, give abx as ordered, VS q5min until stable
What nursing skills are involved in blood product administration?
- Obtain venous access; use central venous catheter or 19-gauge needle.
- Use only blood administration tubing to infuse blood products.
- Run blood products with saline solutions only. Dextrose solutions and Ringer’s lactate solution will induce RBC hemolysis.
- Run infusion at prescribed rate, and remain with client for the first 15-30 minutes of infusion.
- The blood should be administered as soon as it is brought to the client.
- Check vital signs frequently before, during, and immediately following infusion; note any increase in temperature.
- Follow agency policy regarding specific timetable for blood infusion.
- Check and double-check the product before infusing to see that it is the:
- Correct product, as prescribed; double-check with a second licensed person.
- Correct blood type and Rh factor, matched with the client, and note expiration date.
DIC: Nursing Assessment
A. Petechiae, purpura, hematomas
B. Oozing from IV sites, drains, gums, and wounds
C. Gastrointestinal and genitourinary bleeding
D. Hemoptysis
E. Mental status change
F. Hypotension, tachycardia
G. Pain
DIC: Nursing Interventions
A. Monitor client for bleeding.
B. Monitor vital signs.
C. Monitor PT/INR.
D. Protect client from injury and bleeding.
1. Provide gentle oral care with mouth swabs.
2. Minimize needle sticks; use smallest gauge needle
possible.
3. Turn client frequently to eliminate pressure points.
4. Minimize number of BP measurements taken by
cuff.
5. Use gentle suction to prevent trauma to mucosa.
6. Apply pressure to any oozing site.
E. Administer heparin IV during the first phase to inhibit
coagulation.
F. Provide emotional support to decrease anxiety.
- Define shock.
- What is the most common cause of shock?
- What causes septic shock?
- What is the goal of treatment for hypovolemic shock?
- What intervention is used to restore cardiac output when hypovolemic shock exists?
- It is important to differentiate between hypovolemic and cardiogenic shock. How might the nurse determine the existence
of cardiogenic shock? - If a client is in cardiogenic shock, what might result from administration of volume-expanding fluids, and what intervention
can the nurse expect to perform in the event of such an occurrence? - List five assessment findings that occur in most shock victims.
- Once circulating volume is restored, vasopressors may be prescribed to increase venous return. List the main drugs that are used.
- What is the established minimum renal output per hour?
- List four measurable criteria that are the major expected outcomes of a shock crisis.
- Define DIC.
- What is the effect of DIC on PT, PTT, platelets, and FSPs (FDPs)?
- What drug is used in the treatment of DIC?
- Name four nursing interventions to prevent injury in clients with DIC.
- Widespread, serious reduction of tissue perfusion, which leads to generalized impairment of cellular function
- Hypovolemia
- Release of endotoxins by bacteria, which act on nerves in vascular spaces in the periphery, causing vascular pooling, reduced
venous return, and decreased cardiac output and result in poor systemic perfusion - Quick restoration of cardiac output and tissue perfusion
- Rapid infusion of volume-expanding fluids
- History of MI with left ventricular failure or possible cardiomyopathy, with symptoms of pulmonary edema
- Pulmonary edema; administer medications to manage preload, contractility and/or afterload. For example, to decrease
afterload, nitroprusside (Nipride) may be administered. - Tachycardia; tachypnea; hypotension; cool, clammy skin; decrease in urinary output
- Epinephrine (Bronkaid), dopamine (Intropin), dobutamine (Dobutrex), norepinephrine (Levophed), or isoproterenol (Isuprel)
- 30 mL/hr
- BP mean of 80 to 90 mm Hg; Po2 >50 mm Hg; CVP 2 to 6 mm HG H2O; urine output at least 30 mL/hr
- A coagulation disorder in which there is paradoxical thrombosis and hemorrhage
- PT, prolonged; PTT, prolonged; platelets, decreased; FSPs, increased
- Heparin
- Gently provide oral care with mouth swabs. Minimize needle sticks and use the smallest gauge needle possible when
injections are necessary. Eliminate pressure by turning the client frequently. Minimize the number of BP measurements taken
by cuff. Use gentle suction to prevent trauma to mucosa. Apply pressure to any oozing site.
What is cardiopulmonary arrest?
A. Usually caused by MI; necrosis of the heart muscle
caused by inadequate blood supply to heart
B. MIs usually occur at rest or with moderate activity, contrary
to the belief that they occur with strenuous activity.
C. Symptoms immediately preceding MI:
1. Chest pain or discomfort at rest or with ordinary
activity
2. Change in previous stable anginal pain—an increase
in frequency or severity or rest angina occurring for
the first time
3. Chest pain in a client with known coronary heart
disease that is unrelieved by rest or nitroglycerin
When do you seek EMS for a client with angina?
When to seek emergency medical
services (EMS):
The American Heart Association recommends that those with known angina pectoris activate an emergency medical system if chest pain does NOT go away immediately with rest or is NOT relieved in 5 minutes after taking nitroglycerin or if additional symptoms such as nausea and sweating are also present with the chest pain. A person with previously unrecognized coronary disease experiencing chest pain persisting for 2 minutes
or longer should seek emergency medical treatment.
During CPR, what do you do about arterial acidosis?
When significant arterial acidosis is noted, try to reduce Pco2 by increasing ventilation, which will correct arterial, venous, and tissue acidosis. Bicarbonate may exacerbate acidosis by producing CO2. ACLS guidelines recommend that bicarbonate not be used unless hyperkalemia, tricyclic antidepressant overdose, or pre-existing metabolic acidosis is documented.
In pulseless arrest algorithm, what contributing factors should you search for and treat?
In the pulseless arrest algorithm, the search for and treatment of possible contributing factors should include checking for hypovolemia, hypoxia,hydrogen ion acidosis, hypokalemia and hyperkalemia, hypoglycemia, hypothermia, toxins, tamponade (cardiac), tension pneumothorax, thrombosis (cardiac, pulmonary), and trauma.
- What is the first priority when a client with an unwitnessed cardiac arrest is found?
- Define myocardial infarction.
- What criteria should alert a client with known angina who takes nitroglycerin tablets sublingually to call EMS?
- After calling out for help and asking someone to dial for emergency services, what is the next action in CPR?
- True or false? In feeling for presence of a carotid pulse, no more than 5 seconds should be used.
- During one-rescuer CPR, what is the ratio of compressions to ventilations for an adult? During one-rescuer CPR, what is the
ratio of compressions to ventilations for a child? - What is the first drug most likely to be used for an in-hospital cardiac arrest?
- A client in cardiac arrest is noted on bedside monitor to be in pulseless ventricular tachycardia. What is the first action that
should be taken? - How would the nurse assess the adequacy of compressions during CPR? How would the nurse assess the adequacy of
ventilations during CPR? - If a person is choking, when should the rescuer intervene?
- One should never make blind sweeps into the mouth of a choking child or infant. Why?
- Begin CPR.
- Necrosis of the heart muscle due to poor perfusion of the heart
- Unrelieved chest pain after nitroglycerin
- For adults check carotid pulse and if no pulse deliver C-A-B.
- False. Palpate for no more than 10 seconds, recognizing that arrhythmias or bradycardia could be occurring.
- 30:2; 15:2 for a child or neonate with two rescuers and 30:2 for 1 rescuer.
- Epinephrine
- Defibrillation
- Check for a carotid or femoral pulse. Watch for chest excursion and auscultate bilaterally for breath sounds.
- When the person points to his or her throat and can no longer cough, talk, or make sounds
- Because the object might be pushed farther down into the throat
Fluid Volume Deficit - Dehydration
• Elevated blood urea nitrogen (BUN): The BUN measures the amount of urea nitrogen in the blood. Urea is formed in the liver as the end product of protein metabolism. The BUN is directly related to the metabolic function of the liver and the excretory function of the kidneys.
• Creatinine, as with BUN, is excreted entirely by the kidneys and is therefore directly proportional to renal excretory function. However, unlike BUN, the creatinine level is affected very little by dehydration, malnutrition, or hepatic function. The daily production of creatinine depends on muscle mass, which fluctuates very little. Therefore, it is a better test of renal function than is the BUN. Creatinine is generally used in conjunction with the BUN test, and they are normally in a
1:20 ratio.
• Serum osmolality measures the concentration of particles in a solution. It refers to the fact that the same amount of solute is present, but the amount of solvent (fluid) is decreased. Therefore, the blood can be considered “more concentrated.”
• Urine osmolality and specific gravity increase.