Advanced aggression Module 2 - A Batson

Question 1

Attachment theory is about …

Answer 1

Safety and emotional responsiveness

Food has the potential to enhance/strengthen that relationship but it doesn’t appear to be the source

Question 2

Attachment types in relationships

Answer 2

Secure attached
Insecure attached
Insecure resistant
Disorganised

Question 3

Attachment types in relationships and their descriptions

Answer 3

Response to separation Response to reunion

Secure attached Looks towards exit of Happy and positive
caregiver may remain
calm or exhibit distress

Insecure avoidant Ignores exit of caregiver Ignores return

Insecure resistant Distressed at exit of Over excited / anxious
caregiver but refuses physical
contact

Disorganised Erratic – can be distressed, Often in conflict, excited
can ignore but fearful. Often shows
a lot of avoidance or
appeasing behaviours

Question 4

why does attachment matter in relation to aggressive dog cases?

Answer 4

Individuals with insecure attachment relationships may have had early experiences in which bids for proximity may have been discouraged, rejected or inconsistently responded to and rely more heavily on secondary coping processes to deal with stress and challenge.

One of these can be aggressive behaviours

Disorganised attachment maybe associated with increased risk for aggression and other behavioural problems, most likely due to;
States of emotional dysregulation and dissociative process’s may block the persons awareness of their violent actions

Question 5

In dogs oxytocin has been shown to;

Answer 5

• reduce heart rate and increase heart rate variability- reduce acute stress responses
• increase optimism in cognitive tests
• enhance performance in cognitive tasks
• increase ability for the dog to learn from human signals
• increase dogs’ play motivation along with increasing social play behaviours (with dogs and humans_

Question 6

According study by Boitani et al, in feral dogs and wolves, what is needed in the development of normal attachments in the dog?

Answer 6

Both parents present Predominantly yes
Italian study suggested not in that case

Maternal care provided A lot of licking in the first week of life
Suckling by the dam - skin to nose/mouth contact
Pheromone production
Vocalisations
proximity

Weaning Reduction in suckling 6-12 weeks
Cessation around 11 weeks

                                            Feeding of regurgitated food often starts as early as 5 weeks

Relationship building Current litter mates and older siblings

Babysitters Never left alone

                                           Most feral dog studies show co-operation in puppy care
                                           Lack of constant care linked to high predation rates

Leaving natal group Boitani study
- Pups remained with the group until over a year old

                                       Pal's study

                                       - Pups stayed until adulthood at least beyond sexual maturity
                                       - 50% dogs ever dispersed, most were males, average age was 13 months

Question 7

Given that the average pet puppy is weaned from its mother and into a new home
by approximately 8 weeks of age, what steps could a human owner undertake to
ensure the puppy has the best chance of normal healthy attachment development,
thereby limiting the likelihood of aggression and abnormal behaviour
development?

Answer 7

Lots of proximity to puppy – physical contact, touch etc and considering the overnight time too
Understand body language / signals
Consistency / predictability
Enough time to develop a bond with one or two caregivers – not too many stimuli, too much activity, day care etc
Education on bonding versus training
Socialisation with other dogs - mature dogs – one or two healthy, vaccinated dogs for initial interactions Uncle or Aunt
Safe zone for physical and emotional needs

Question 8

When working with a client and their only dog, you believe the dog to have
insecure attachments (based on response to separation and reunion, poor impulse
control, development of aggressive tendencies and submissive body language
around the owner during the consultation). How would you aim to change /
improve the dog owner relationship as part of your behaviour modification
programme?

Answer 8

Review whole base of attachment

• Be present / be reliable
• Avoid threats / punishments
• Be fun
• Have trust – needs education on dogs needs, body language

Touch ? Stroking / gentle massage / T Touch / Grooming
OXYTOCIN

Question 9

What is the cuddle hormone

Answer 9

Oxytocin

Question 10

Specific behavioural changes seen following early traumatic experiences include;

Answer 10

Frozen watchfulness/ compulsive compliance - this is a strategy associated with physical abuse of children - designed to minimise the threat from dangerous attachment figures

A marked reduction in social exploration and skill sets, depressive behaviour and aggression

Question 11

genotype

Answer 11

the genetic makeup of an individual

Question 12

Phenotype

Answer 12

the physical and ‘behavioural’ appearance of an organism resulting from the interaction of the genotype and the environment

Question 13

epigenetics

Answer 13

is an emerging field of science that studies heritable changes caused by the activation and deactivation of genes without any change in the underlying DNA sequence of the organism.

Question 14

Epigenetics and memory formation

Answer 14

The first experiences of an individual, predominantly attachment and first learning experiences, may affect the switching on or off’ mechanisms associated with long term memory production

Potentially this affects whether an individual prioritizes ‘negative’ or ‘positive’ memories throughout life - the creation of the pessimist or the optimist

Question 15

The risk taking tendencies of an individual are related to their…..

Answer 15

genetics and the phenotypic expression of those genetics as a result of the individuals upbringing and current environment (e.g current chronic stress levels)

Question 16

What is phenotypic expression?

Answer 16

the physical and ‘behavioural’ appearance / tendencies of an organism resulting from the interaction of the genotype and the environment.

Question 17

draw up a list of factors in a puppy’s development that may affect their epigenetics with regards to risk taking?

Answer 17

Attachment – licking, responsiveness
-	Weaning stress
Negative experiences eg too much handling, inappropriate handling, lack of habituation, painful, scary encounters etc
Lack of dog socialisation
Over stimulation in home
Lack of resources  eg hunger

Question 18

what sort of ‘risks’ is the typical pet dog potentially considering taking?

Answer 18

Being aggressive (biting or not)
Challenging over a resource
Interacting with new stimuli / experiences
Incl meeting other dogs, playing with new people etc

Learning sets – choosing whether to have a go at something new

Question 19

List 4 reasons why serotonin is believed to be a key part in the inherited tendency to demonstrate aggressive behaviour…

Answer 19

1 - the early expression of serotonin during prenatal development and its widespread effects on brain morphogenesis has led to the hypothesis that 5- HT plays a a critical role in brain development.

2 - Pharmacological data implicates serotonin in the regulation of aggressive behaviour in crayfish, fish, birds, mammals and humans.

3 - A vast body of pharmacological and neurochemical evidence implicates brain 5 -HT in the regulation of different kinds of aggressive behaviour in rats and mice

4- Clinical evidence associates impulsivity and aggression with deficiency in central 5-ht activity

Question 20

What genetic mechanisms can serotonin activity be affected in an individual?

Answer 20

1 - the expression of TPH (tryptophan hydroxylase) - the first enzyme in the step of converting tryptophan into serotonin

2 - Expression of MAO A- the enzyme that breaks down serotonin

3 - Expression of serotonin transporter genes (SERT)

4 - Expression of 5HT subtype 1 A and 1 B receptors

Question 21

So by what genetic mechanisms can serotonin ‘activity’ be affected in an individual?

Expression of TPH (tryptophan hydroxylase) the first enzyme in the step of converting tryptophan into serotonin

The increased activity of TPH…..

Answer 21

implicates 5 HT as an inhibitory factor in fear induced defensive aggression

Question 22

So by what genetic mechanisms can serotonin ‘activity’ be affected in an individual?

Expression of MAO A - the enzyme that breaks down serotonin, adrenalin and DA

Answer 22

Disruption of MAO A can lead to changes in level of catecholamines, 5 HT and their metabolites as well as in aggressiveness - including impulsive and frustration aggression

Question 23

So by what genetic mechanisms can serotonin ‘activity’ be affected in an individual?

Expression of serotonin transporter genes (SERT)

Answer 23

SERT terminates serotonin action at they synapse and represents on the the key regulators of serotonin-ergic activity providing effective control over the intensity of serotonin mediated signaling

Deletion of SERT in knockout mice produces a reduction in aggressive behaviour

The amount of SERT expression in an individual will have some effect on the amount of serotonin available for re - lapse at the synapse

Question 24

So by what genetic mechanisms can serotonin ‘activity’ be affected in an individual?

Expression of 5HT subtype 1 A and 1B receptors

Answer 24

5HT receptors on the post synaptic membrane, can be altered in both sensitivity and density dependent on genetic expression

5HT 1A receptors in the limbic system play significant role in the expression of aggressiveness and inherited high or low aggressiveness maybe determined by the expression and density of 5HT1A receptors in the limbic system

Pre-clinical studies show the attenuating effect of 5ht1b receptor agonists, particularly on frustration and impulsive elements of aggression

Question 25

What is genetic memory

Answer 25

It’s a memory present at birth that exists in the absence of that individuals sensory experience and is incorporated into the genome over long spans of time. It is based on the idea that common/highly salient experiences of a species become incorporated into its genetic code

Question 26

Various components that may affect an individuals ‘inherited’ tendency towards aggression:

Answer 26

• their inherited genotype
• the expression of their genotype in their specific ‘environment’
• Early life experiences, including prenatal, affecting their epigenetics with regards to;
• serotonin, dopamine and other neurotransmitter/receptor expression
• long term memory production
• ‘Inherited’ memories

Question 27

What is latent learning?

Answer 27

A type of learning not immediately expressed, it occurs without any previous reinforcement of the behaviour

Question 28

Food aggression is most commonly a subtype of fear aggression - fear of losing a valued resources. Common contributors to increasing the value of food;

Answer 28

• Early weaning
• High numbers of puppies per litter (increased food competition)
• Limiting food availability in neonates
• Disease affecting appetite
• High endoparasite burdens
• Food removal/withholding as part of training protocols
• high stress levels (e.g. dogs in rehoming shelters)

Question 29

Diseases affecting blood/tissue glucose levels;

Answer 29

• Diabetes mellitus
• Cushing’s (secondary to DM)
• Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI)
• Intestinal malabsorption
• Neoplasia (increased metabolic rate)

Question 30

Diseases potentially affecting serotonin feedback mechanisms;

Answer 30

• inflammatory bowl disease
• food intolerance/ food allergy, gut disease
• chronic diarrhoea (multiple causes including parasites eg. giardia)
• Bacterial overgrowth disorder
• Neoplasia

Question 31

Sedatives available for assisting in the aggressive dog examination

Answer 31

Benzodiazepines
eg. - Diazepam, Alprazolam, Midazolam

BZD’s can cause hyperexcitement in some individuals

Alpha 2 agonists e.g. Medetomidine, Dexmedetomidine (reduces SNS but not truly sedating)

Acepromazine - considered not antianxiety so rarely used in fear aggressive patients

Ketamine

Question 32

The fear hangover effect…applied to vet exams

Answer 32

The stress physilogogy of the examination/blood sampling leads to catecholamine + cortisol release which may increase the chance of aggression for several hours after the vet assessment. Owners and vet staff should be made away of this and allow the dog to recover fully in a calm, quiet environment - ideally at home or in the car with minimal handling

Question 33

Common causes of aggression in the neonate

Answer 33

Fear
Frustration
Predatory aggression

Question 34

Diseases affecting the neonate that may affect aggression

Answer 34

Endoparasites (including giardia and gut health)

Portosystemic shunt

Distemper

Pain (from injury)

Question 35

Life long persistent tendency toward aggression is thought to have its origins in neurodevelopment (e.g. related to attachment theory among other aspects of neurodevelopment in the neonate and juvenile), it begins in childhood and persists from there. In contrast adolescent tendency toward aggression…..

Answer 35

has its origins in social influence (the observable behaviours of those around the individual, as well as attachments during the period); it begins in adolescence but desists in young adulthood. Research has shown that adolescent aggressive tendencies are common, transient and near normative

Question 36

Mesocortical/mesolimbic reward pathways and adolescent risk taking behaviour

Answer 36

There is a mesocortical peak in DA during adolescence

increased DA in the prefrontal cortex inhibits excitatory cortical input. Consistent with characteristic adolescence behaviours such as;

• heightened incentive seeking
• increased risk taking
• poor decision making

these are thought to be over compensatory behaviours for the decrease in cortical input. While poor decision making is attributed to deficient executive control functions in the prefrontal cortex when DA levels are high

Recent studies suggest some areas of the adolescent brain are hypersensitive to reward and that this becomes addictive which results in more risk taking.

Question 37

The adolescent dog and the ethogram, Risk factors;

Puberty

Answer 37

Puberty typically begins around 5-6 months of age

Question 38

The adolescent dog and the ethogram, Risk factors;

Growth hormone

Answer 38

GH production is maximal mid puberty in most mammals.

Is also simulates IGF-1 levels and is now recognized as the cause of normal puberty insulin resistance.

IR is a mechanism to limit glucose uptake into muscle tissue to priorities glucose uptake into the developing brain

Question 39

The adolescent dog and the ethogram, Risk factors;

Natal dispersal

Answer 39

moving from a natal home range to a new ‘territory’ markedly increases risks (new social interactions, food, shelter, and mate acquisition, potential disease)

The priming of the adolescent brain to cope with risk taking is a likely similar physiological mechanism to that studied in people

Question 40

The adolescent dog and the ethogram, Risk factors;

Sleep

Answer 40

Sleep duration significantly increases in human teenagers and other mammals, but hasn’t been studied in dogs

Increased slow wave sleep/deep sleep (SWS) allows for maximal brain development

Lack of sleep has been linked to excessive hunger, obesity development and increased irritability and poor focus

Question 41

Disease of the adolescent dog linked to aggression;

Answer 41

EPI (exocrine pancreatic insufficiency)

Malabsorption e.g. IBD

Allergies

Question 42

Given the findings regards growth hormone, insulin resistance and effects of sleep reduction, explain physiologically why increasing physical exercise to ‘tire out’ the excitable adolescent dog, potentially increases the risk of aggression development.

Answer 42

Increases catecholamine release from faster exercise:
*?Reduce sleep – cortisol
*increased blood flow to muscles to carry in glucose, oxygen etc and remove unwanted products eg lactate
- challenges current life stage homeostasis attempting
Potentially worsens the current executive lack of control from frontal regions into limbic system (including ?dopamine drop and risk taking) as well as potentially, if frequent and repeated, limiting brains ability to develop executive control over limbic system in longer term.

Question 43

The Cerebellums affect on the developing brain

Answer 43

• plays essential role in the development of social capabilities
• its affected by maternal stress during pregnancy, individuals maybe born with underdeveloped pathways already present
• Most of its development and activity occur when an individual is first learning a new motor/cognitive task.

Once the task is learnt, cerebellar neuronal firing is drastically reduced

Question 44

Consequences of early life damage to the cerebullum…

Answer 44

• are similar to the effects of social deprivation

Children with ADHD have been shown to have smaller cerebellums

often they have;

• poor motor co-ordination, eg. balance issues
• unable to assess distance effectively
• increased tendency to develop motor stereotypies
• higher incidence of aggression particularly up to and including adolescence

Question 45

Cerebellar development is affected by….

Answer 45

both motor movements and sensory experiences including problem solving

Question 46

The cerebullum… and the prefrontal cortex are activated simultaneously in circuits when;

Answer 46

• A cognitive task is difficult as opposed to easy
• A cognitive task is new as opposed to familiar
• Conditions of the cognitive task change ( lose =shift patterns)
• When a quick response is required
• where the individual has to concentrate on the task rather than operate on ‘automatic pilot’

Question 47

Consider the ethogram of both attachment theory
and the ethogram related to puppy experiences before
6 months of age, how could the purchaser of an 8 week
old puppy assist the development of that individual’s
cerebellum and interconnecting pathways?
Particularly give multiple specific examples of
problem solving and/or sensory enriching activities
the owner could provide.

Answer 47

• Licking – creates rocking / rolling
• Feeding / climbing on to mum, nipple location, falling off, heat seeking etc
• Play – rolling around R and T, pounce, attempts at chase
• Exploration of den area
• Manipulation of food items / objects
• Further exploration – smell, sight, touch, taste, hearing
• going on forays for food

Question 48

Multiple studies in rats have shown that environment enrichment can help in situations were prenatal stress, under development due to poor attachment, or the effects of social isolation may be factor by

Answer 48

• EE can reverse the effect of poor social interactions due to prenatal stress, but has no effect on cortisol levels. HPA activity remained elevated compared to no prenatal stress individuals
• EE could attenuate the HPA axis activity and low hippocampal development in rats subjected to prolonged maternal separations early in life
• EE can reduce chronic stress levels in socially isolated individuals

Question 49

Activation levels during reward anticipation showed a positive relation with age, while activation levels during reward outcome decreased with age.

What does this mean?

Answer 49

This indicates that activation shifts from being driven primarily by the receipt of the reward to the anticipation of reward from young adolescences to young adults

Adolescences are initially motivated by the actual reward itself, but as they get older, it’s the anticipation of the reward that begins to trigger DA release

Question 50

Given that adolescent dogs are probably the most commonly presented age group for behaviour problems including aggression, how might this information affect your approach to using rewards in training?
(nb consider also the previous information provided on frustration / fear and impulse control affected by glucose levels)

Answer 50

Consider reward value ….
Individual assessment – how motivated is the dog, not too salient for frustration / overshadowing

Consider reinforcement schedule
Ideally CRF not VF. Reach asymptote quicker?

Question 51

Given that adolescent dogs are probably the most commonly presented age group for behaviour problems including aggression, how might this information affect your approach to using rewards in training?

Does previous information this module have any particular relevance to this question and what other forms of neurobiology recovery therapy should take place prior to ‘retraining’?

Answer 51

Feeding and glucose stability
Delay neutering?
Use of enrichment opportunities to maximise cerebellar / PFC / limbic inputs including appropriate social interaction – conspecifics and humans

Question 52

Risk Factors involved with Adults and aggression

Answer 52

Metabolic rate changes,
obesity and diet restriction

• Injuries leading to pain
• Diseases affecting the middle aged dog linked to aggression
• Hypothyroidism
• Seizures (idiopathic epilepsy)
• Addison’s
• Diabetes (mid to late adult hood)

Question 53

Risk Factors involved with dogs and aggression

Answer 53

Changes in sleep patterns

• Memory loss / reduction
• Diseases affecting the geriatric dog linked to aggression
• Diabetes mellitus
• Cancer
• Eye sight deterioration eg cataract development
• Cognitive dysfunction syndrome
• Sources of pain: eg. arthritis, dental disease, hepatitis

Question 54

Age and new learning

Answer 54

Aged dogs showed a decline in attentional capture and sustained attention, demonstrating that these tests are sensitive to detect aging of attentiveness in older pet dogs.

Importantly, selective attention remained unchanged with age and lifelong training seemed to delay or reduce the aging of attentiveness, further highlighting the importance of lifelong training in retaining general cognitive functions