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Endocrine System > Adrenal Glands Physiology > Flashcards

Adrenal Glands Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

What are the hormones secreted by the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal gland?

A

Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

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2
Q

What is the function of aldosterone?

A

Potassium, sodium, and water homeostasis

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3
Q

What are the hormones secreted by the zona fasciculata of the adrenal galnd?

A

Glucocorticoids (cortisol)

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4
Q

What is the function of glucocorticoids like cortisol?

A

Glucose homeostasis plays a role in the metabolism of proteins and lipids and in adaptation to stress

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5
Q

What hormones are secreted from the zona reticularis of the adrenal gland?

A

Sex steroids (androgens)

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6
Q

What hormones are secreted by the medulla of the adrenal gland?

A

Catecholamines

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7
Q

What are examples of catecholamines secreted by the medulla of the adrenal gland?

A

Norepinephrine
Epinephrine
Dopamine

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8
Q

What are the three different classifications of the adrenocortical hormones?

A

MIneralocorticoids
Glucocorticoids
Sex hormones

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9
Q

What is an example of sex hormones?

A

DHEA –> an androgen (male sex hormone)

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10
Q

What type of hormone is aldosterone?

A

A steroid hormone (mineralocorticoid)

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11
Q

What regulates aldosterone?

A

Renin-angiotensin system

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12
Q

Where is renin secreted and in response to what?

A

Renin is secreted from the kidneys in response to variations in BP and volume and plasma sodium and potassium levels

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13
Q

What is the role of renin?

A

Converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I

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14
Q

What type of hormone is cortisol?

A

A steroid horome (glucocorticoid)

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15
Q

How are the levels of cortisol regulated

A

They rise and fall naturally through-out the day

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16
Q

When are cortisol levels the highest and when are they the lowest?

A

Lowest: late at night
Highest: early in the morning

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17
Q

What is DHEA?

A

Precursor for androgen

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18
Q

What is the function of DHEA?

A

Produces male hormones in women and female hormones in men to keep the effects of the dominant sex hormones in balance

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19
Q

What is the adrenal medulla?

A

A modified sympathetic prevertebral ganglion that releases epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood in response to sympathetic stimulation

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20
Q

What is the functional unit of the adrenal medulla?

A

The chromaffin cell, which functions as an NE cell

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21
Q

What does epinephrine activate have an effect on?

A

b-adrenoreceptor and a-adenoreceptors

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22
Q

What is the effect of adrenaline on b-adrenoreceptors?

A

Vasodilation
Tachycardia
Insulin resistance

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23
Q

What is the effect of the activation of a-adrenoceptors?

A

Vasoconstriction

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24
Q

Which catecholamine acts only om the a-adrenoceptor?

A

Noradrenaline

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25
Q

What are the effects of androgens when bound to androgen receptors?

A

Hair (pubic and axillary)
Libido (especially in females)

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26
Q

What are the effects of cortisol when bound to glucocorticoid recepors?

A

Metabolic regulation
Immunomodulation
Cardiovascular regulation
CNS actions

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27
Q

What is the effect of b-LPH?

A

Pigmentation

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28
Q

What is the Aldosterone secretion pathway like?

A
  1. Decrease in plasma volume or increase in plasma K+
  2. Increase of plasma angiotensin II
  3. Increase of adrenal secretion from the adrenal cortex
  4. Increase the concentration of plasma aldosterone
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29
Q

What is the effect of increased plasma aldosterone on the cortical collecting ducts?

A

Increased sodium reabsorption –> Decreased sodium excretion
Increased potassium secretion –> Increased potassium excretion

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30
Q

What are the regulation of secretion of mineralocorticoids like aldosterone?

A
  1. The levels of potassium and sodium in the blood
  2. The RAAS
  3. ACTH (to a lesser extent)
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31
Q

What regulates glucocorticoids and androgen ?

A

Regulated by hypothalamic-pituitary system

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32
Q

What is the hypothalamic-pituitary system?

A

A negative feedback system, one of the most important elements of homeostasis, maintains a steady internal biochemical and physiological balance in the body

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33
Q

What does the HPA axis regulate?

A

Adjusts cortisol levels according to the need of the body, under normal and stressed conditions via ACTH

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34
Q

Where is ACTH secreted from?

A

Secreted from the pituitary gland in response to the orders from the hypothalamus and travels in the bloodstream to the adrenal cortex

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35
Q

In relation to stress what kind of glands are adrenal glands?

A

They are anti-stress glands

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36
Q

What is the function of the cortisol during stress conditions?

A
  1. Needs to provide more blood glucose
  2. Mobilize fats and proteins for a back-up supply of glucose
  3. Modify immune reactions, heartbeat, blood pressure, brain alertness and nervous system responsiveness
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37
Q

What happens if the cortisol levels cannot rise in response to the needs of the stress?

A

Maintenance of the body under stress is nearly impossible

38
Q

What is the catecholamine biosynthesis like?

A
  1. L-Tyrosine to L-DOPA (enzyme: Tyrosine hydroxylase)
  2. L-DOPA to Dopamine (enzyme: DOPA decarboxylase)
  3. Dopamine to Norepinephrine (enzyme: Dopamine β-hydroxylase)
  4. Norepinephrine to Epinephrine (enzyme: Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT))
39
Q

Which is the rate-limiting step of the synthesis of catecholamines?

A

Conversion of L-Tyrosine to L-DOPA

40
Q

What induces PNMT?

A

Glucocorticoids

41
Q

What is the mechanism of regulation of secretion of catecholamines?

A
  1. Stress signals stimulate the sympathetic nervous system.
  2. Acetylcholine from preganglionic sympathetic neurons binds to nicotinic receptors on adrenal medullary cells, triggering catecholamine release.
42
Q

Where does the regulation of secretion of catecholamines occur?

A

Mainly in the adrenal medulla and small neuron group and some subtypes of cardiomyocytes

43
Q

What are the actions of aldosterone?

A
  1. Responsible for the regulation of sodium in the distal tubule and cortical collecting duct
  2. Affects Na+ reabsorption by sweat, salivary and intestinal cells
  3. Stimulates the synthesis of more Na/K ATP
  4. Maintains extracellular volume
44
Q

What happens if there is excess of aldosterone?

A
  1. Increase extracellular fluid volume & arterial pressure
  2. Small effect on the plasma sodium concentration
  3. Causes hypokalemia and muscle weakness
  4. Increases tubular hydrogen ion secretion (mild alkalosis)
45
Q

What does deficiency of Aldosterone lead to?

A

Hyperkalemia and cardiac toxicity

46
Q

What are the actions of cortisol?

A
  1. Increase of protein synthesis in the liver and decrease its synthesis in muscles
  2. Increase of protein destruction in muscles
  3. Increase of lipolysis
  4. Anti-inflammatory function and immunomodulation
  5. Cardiovascular regulation (Increase of BP)
47
Q

What are the effects of cortisol on the glucose metabolism?

A
  1. Increase of glycogen synthesis in the liver and decrease of glucose utilization by peripheral tissues
48
Q

What does cortisol work in tandem with?

A

Insulin from the pancreas to maintain blood glucose levels in the proper balance

49
Q

What are the effects of cortisol on lipid metabolism?

A
  1. Increases lipolysis in adipose tissue
  2. Reduces synthesis of triglycerides
50
Q

What is the result of the cortisol effect on the adipocyte tissue?

A

Redistribution of the fat with a predominance of central obesity and interscapular deposits of fat (Buffalo hump)

51
Q

What is the effect of cortisol on protein and nucleic acid metabolism?

A
  1. Reduction of protein storage in all cells except the liver ones
  2. Increases liver and plasma proteins
  3. Mobilizes amino acids from nonhepatic cells, thus increasing blood amino acid levels
  4. Increased amino acid transport to the liver cells, and decreased transport of amino acids into other cells
52
Q

What are the effects of cortisol on water and electrolyte metabolism?

A
  1. Deficiency of cortisol –> increase in production of ADH
    a. Water retention: action on the collecting tubules
    b. Decreased GFR –> impaired. water clearance causes water retention in the body
53
Q

What are the effects of cortisol on the immune system?

A
  1. Cortisol suppresses the immune response directly and indirectly by affecting most cells that participate in immune reactions and inflammatory reactions (a powerful anti-inflammatory)
  2. Reduces the rate at which lymphocytes multiply and accelerates their programmed cell death to further protect the body from this over-reaction
54
Q

What are strong corticosteroids used with?

A

Strong corticosteroids are used with all diseases involving inflammatory processes, including auto-immune diseases

55
Q

What are examples of strong corticosteroids?

A

Prednisone and Prednisolone

56
Q

What are the effects of cortisol on the cardiovascular system?

A
  1. Could control the contraction of the walls of the mid-sized arteries –> increasing the BP
  2. Directly affects the heart by regulating sodium and potassium in the heart cells and increasing the strength of contraction of the heart muscle
57
Q

What is the contraction of walls of mid-sized arteries due to cortisol moderated by?

58
Q

What are the effects of cortisol on calcium?

A
  1. Decreases the absorption of calcium from the intestine
  2. Increases the renal excretion of calcium
59
Q

What are the actions of catecholamines?

A
  1. Glycogen breakdown into glucose –> Increased blood glucose
  2. Increased blood pressure
  3. Increased breathing rate
  4. Increased metabolic rate
  5. Change in blood flow –> increased alertness and decreased digestive and kidney activity
60
Q

What are the characteristics of steroid hormones?

A
  1. They are not packaged but synthesized and immediately released
  2. All derived from the same parent compound
  3. They are lipid soluble and thus are freely permeable to membranes –> not stored in cells
61
Q

What is the parent compound of all steroid hormones?

A

Cholesterol

62
Q

Where are the enzymes that produce steroid hormones from cholesterol located?

A

Located in the mitochondria and SER

63
Q

What is the MOA of steroid hormones?

A
  1. Hydrophobic SHsdiffuse to the cytoplasm and bind cytoplasmic or nuclear receptors
  2. Receptor-ligand complex migrates to the hormone response element (HRE)
  3. Turn on new transcription genes
  4. Translation into new proteins
64
Q

What protein carriers are steroids bound to?

A
  1. Albumin
  2. Corticosteroid binding globulin (CBG) or transcortin
  3. Sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG)
  4. Androgen binding protein (ABP)
65
Q

What are the % boundings of cortisol?

A
  1. 70% is bound to corticosteroid-binding globulin
  2. 22% is bound to albumin
  3. 8% is free cortisol
66
Q

What are the % boundings of aldosterone?

A
  1. 60% of aldosterone is bound to albumin
  2. 10% is bound to CBG
  3. A small amount of aldosterone is bound to other plasma proteins
67
Q

Where is CBG/transcortin produced?

A

In the liver

68
Q

What increases the synthesis of CBG/transcortin?

69
Q

What is the aim of binding hormones to transport proteins?

A

Protected from catabolism and inactivation

70
Q

What is the function of transport proteins?

A

They assist in maintaining a level of hormones in circulation

71
Q

How are most hormones catabolized?

A

By the liver and the kidneys

72
Q

What does inactivation of steroids involve?

A

Reductions and conjugations to sulfate to increase their water solubility

73
Q

How are conjugated steroid excreted?

A

70% in the urine
20% in the feces
10% through the skin

74
Q

What is the half life of the steroids which are bound to plasma proteins?

A

They have long half-lives (hours)

75
Q

What are peptides and catecholamines like?

A

Water-soluble, they are transported dissolved in plasma

76
Q

What is the half-life of peptides and catecholamines?

A

Short half-lives (seconds to minutes)

77
Q

Why are the effects of steroid hormones produced more slowly?

A

They initiate protein synthesis, but their effects are more long-lasting than those produced by other hormones

78
Q

What are the diseases of the adrenal gland?

A

Cushing’s disease
Addison’s disease

79
Q

What is Cushing’s disease?

A

Hyper-active adrenal cortex

80
Q

What are the characteristics of Cushing’s disease?

A
  1. Rounded face and obesity
  2. Thin, frail skin
  3. Poor wound healing
81
Q

What is Addison’s disease?

A

Hypo-active adrenal cortex

82
Q

WHat are the characteristics of Addison’s disease?

A
  1. Deceased appetite and weight loss
  2. Cold intolerance
  3. Stress susceptibility
83
Q

What is Cushing’s DISEASE?

A

The result of a pituitary tumor secreting inappropriate ACTH (increased cortisol from PITUITARY)

84
Q

What is Cushing’s SYNDROME?

A

Causes the same symptoms as Cushing’s disease, but it is caused by the overproduction of adrenal hormones

85
Q

What could cause Cushing’s syndrome?

A

Glucocorticoid drugs, tumors that produce cortisol or ACTH

86
Q

What are the endogenous causes of Cushing’s ?

A

65% –> pituitary
25% –> adrenals
10 –> ectopic source, non-pituitary, ACTH producing tumor

87
Q

What is the female: male ration of Cushing’s?

88
Q

What is the age group target of Cushing’s?

89
Q

How are hormones affected in Addison’s disease?

A

The anterior pituitary produces excessive but INEFFECTIVE amounts of ACTH to the adrenal cortex, thus hindering its ability to produce and release hormones –> Adrenal gland stops eventually producing cortisol

Endocrine System (25 decks)

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