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MCAT Bio/Biochem > Additional Terms > Flashcards

Additional Terms Flashcards

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1
Q

Type I restriction enzyme

A

cleave at sites remote from the recognition site; they require both ATP and S-adenosyl-L-methionine to function.

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2
Q

Type II restriction enzyme

A

cleave within or at short specific distances from their recognition sites and often require magnesium.

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3
Q

Type III restriction enzyme

A

cleave at sites a short distance from their recognition sites and require ATP (but do not hydrolyze it). S-adenosyl-L-methionine stimulates this reaction, but is not required.

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4
Q

Type IV restriction enzyme

A

target modified (e.g. methylated, hydroxymethylated) DNA.

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5
Q

Humoral immunity

A

is part of the body’s adaptive immune response. It is provided by B cell activity, which promotes an antibody, or immunoglobulin, response. Antibodies can recognize polysaccharide, phospholipid, and nucleic acid antigens to help the body fight extracellular bacteria, viruses, and toxins.

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6
Q

Natural immunity

A

This is the immunity present from birth of an individual or animal. When a new infection enters the body, the body produces a complex set of immune reaction to neutralize the foreign body. This immunity is strong and prevents many infections during childhood.

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7
Q

Cell-mediated immunity (adaptive immunity)

A

Here the immune defense is by production of cellular components like macrophages, lymphocytes etc. The end result is destruction of foreign bodies.

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8
Q

Acquired immunity

A

This sounds similar to adaptive immunity. But it is acquired intentionally by use of vaccines in humans. This immunity is very specific for an infection or even to specific strain of infection. This immunity can last for few years to even lifetime.

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9
Q

RNA pol I

A

rRNA

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10
Q

RNA pol II

A

mRNA (hnRNA)

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11
Q

RNA pol III

A

tRNA

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12
Q

chromatography

A

mobile phase= hydrophobic (non-polar)

stationary phase=hydrophillic (polar)

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13
Q

Transduction

A

the process by which DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another by a virus

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14
Q

Transformation

A

the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the direct uptake and incorporation of exogenous genetic material from its surroundings through the cellular membrane.

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15
Q

coordinate covalent bonds

A

are formed between metal ions and a Lewis base, the latter of which donates both electrons shared in the bond.

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16
Q

Some eukaryotic cells are covered with small ciliary projections used for absorption, while others contain larger flagella used for propulsion. These cellular structures are composed of:

A

microtubules

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17
Q

Interesting thing about Proline (P, Pro)

A

The unusual cyclic structure of proline creates a high degree of rigidity in the primary structure of a protein and disrupts the normal formation of alpha or beta secondary structures. Thus proline is much more likely to be found in the unstructured “turn” regions of a protein between the larger secondary structures.

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18
Q

Keto-Enol tautomorization

A

The keto form of a molecule has a typical C=O bond (as in a ketone). To tautomerize into the enol form, an alpha hydrogen must first be abstracted. The resulting free electrons move to form a double bond between the alpha carbon and the carbonyl carbon, and the C=O bond becomes C-O and gains a proton. The result is the enol form, an alcohol sitting adjacent to a C=C bond. For any of this to occur, an alpha hydrogen must first be abstracted.

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19
Q

Kd (dissociation constant-enzyme kinetics)

A

low Kd means high ES affinity

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20
Q

Hill coefficient (enzyme kinetics)

A

Hill coefficient that is greater than 1 indicates positive cooperativity

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21
Q

kcat (enzyme kinetics)

A

represents the catalytic rate constant, often called the turnover number. It is a measure of how many bound substrate molecules turn to product in 1 second. We can calculate the Vmax of a catalyzed reaction using the equation Vmax = kcat [ET], where ET represents the total concentration of enzyme.

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22
Q

A researcher analyzing a genome measures a cytosine composition of 19%. What is the expected adenine composition of this genome?

A

(A+T) + (G+C) = 100%.
19+19=38
100-38=62
62/2=31

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23
Q

Reverse txn dependent on:

A

RNA-dependent DNA polymerase

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24
Q

Sertoli cells

A

During spermatogenesis, the main function of Sertoli cells is to nourish the developing sperm cells. These cells are located in the epithelial lining of the seminiferous tubules and are activated by FSH.

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25
Q

Leydig cells

A

are adjacent to the seminiferous tubules in the testicles. In response to stimulation by LH, they produce testosterone and other androgens.

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26
Q

chromaffin cells

A

catecholamine-secreting neuroendocrine cells of the adrenal medulla. Remember, the catecholamines include epinephrine and norepinephrine.

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27
Q

ischema

A

is a restriction in blood supply to tissues, causing a shortage of oxygen and glucose needed for cellular metabolism (to keep tissue alive). generally caused by problems with blood vessels, with resultant damage to or dysfunction of tissue.

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28
Q

negative control

A

is a group in which no response is expected.

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29
Q

positive control

A

a group in which a known response is expected.

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30
Q

holoenzyme

A

a biochemically active compound formed by the combination of an enzyme with a coenzyme.

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31
Q

coenzyme

A

They cannot by themselves catalyze a reaction but they can help enzymes to do so. Bind to apoenzyme to form holoenzyme. They are non-protein molecules that carry chemical groups between enzymes.

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32
Q

cofactor

A

is non-protein chemical compound bound to an enzyme to assist in catalysis.

33
Q

apoenzyme

A

inactive enzyme, activation of the enzyme occurs upon binding of an organic or inorganic cofactor.

34
Q

cathode

A

negative (positive ions move towards it); reduction occurs here

35
Q

anode

A

positive (negative ions move towards it); oxidation occurs here

36
Q

snoRNAs (small nucleolar RNA)

A

are involved in the modification of rRNA. As such, they would be located in the nucleolus, where ribosomes are assembled.

37
Q

snRNA (small nuclear RNA)

A

is found in the nucleus. These molecules aid in the splicing of pre-mRNA.

38
Q

hnRNA (alternative name for pre-mRNA)

A

not only is this type of nucleic acid found in the nucleus, it also (at least partially, in its exons) codes for peptide products.

39
Q

tRNA (transfer RNA)

A

are most likely to be found in the cytoplasm; serves as the physical link between the mRNA and the amino acid sequence of proteins.

40
Q

Sympatric speciation

A

is that which occurs without a physical barrier; ex) bat species that diverges into separate species in a cave

41
Q

Parapatric speciation

A

occurs when segments of two distinct populations overlap. Due to environmental differences, these segments may develop into two species, but individuals in the overlapping areas can typically still interbreed.

42
Q

Allopatric speciation

A

occurs when populations, or parts of the same population, are separated by a physical barrier.

43
Q

Peripatric speciation

A

is a subtype of allopatric speciation that occurs specifically when one of the two populations is much smaller than the other.

44
Q

Convergent evolution

A

occurs when entirely separate lineages gradually appear more similar over time.
ex) Bats, birds, and butterflies all developed wings in order to utilize the sky and all of its associated advantages.

45
Q

Parallel evolution

A

happens when closely related species evolve in a similar way over time.

46
Q

Coevolution

A

requires that two species evolve in response to each other.

ex) one species evolved because another evolved.

47
Q

Divergent evolution

A

two closely related lineages gradually become more dissimilar.

48
Q

mutualism

A

is a symbiotic relationship in which both parties benefit.

49
Q

commensalism

A

involves a benefit to only one participating species; the other species is unaffected.

50
Q

parasitism

A

occurs when one organism benefits from the relationship at the expense of the other

51
Q

ectosymbiosis

A

is a specific phenomenon in which one species lives on the surface of another.

52
Q

endosymbiosis

A

helps to explain how eukaryotic cells may have evolved from prokaryotic cells. Symbiosis is a close relationship between two different organisms. ex) how we have mitochondria: host cell engulfed (endocytosis) a prokaryote capable of cell respiration)

53
Q

3 irreversible steps of glycolysis

A
  1. Glucose -> Glucose-6-phosphate (hexokinase)
  2. Fructose-6-phosphate -> Fructose-1,,6-bisphosphate (PFK)
  3. phosphoenolpyruvate -> pyruvate (pyruvate kinase)
54
Q

3 important steps of gluconeogenesis

A

backwards of glycolosis except for:
1. conversion of pyruvate into oxaloacetate by pyruvate carboxylase, and then oxaloacetate into PEP by PEP carboxykinase

  1. enzyme Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase to go from fructose-1,-6-bisphos. fructose-6-phos.
  2. enzyme Glucose-6-phosphatase to go from glucose-6-phosphate to glucose.
55
Q

how many acetyl coA produced from beta oxidation

A

n/2, where n = #carbons

56
Q

how many rounds of beta oxidation needed to produce certain number of acetyl coA

A

(n/2) - 1, where n = #carbons

57
Q

direct products of beta oxidation

A

NADH, FADH2, Acetyl coA

58
Q

Fatty acid synthesis

A

condensation->reduction->dehydration->reduction

occurs in cytosol

59
Q

Fatty acid breakdown

A

oxidation->hydration->oxiation->cleavage

occurs in mitochondria

60
Q

Non-coding RNA

A 
tRNA
rRNA
snoRNA
microRNA
siRNA
snRNA
exRNA
piRNA
scaRNA
Xist 
HOTAIR
61
Q

Lipid rafts

A

surround transmembrane proteins and serve signaling purposes. These structures tend to be comprised of long, saturated lipids that strongly adhere to each other and to their associated protein.

62
Q

things to know about ketone bodies

A
  • acetyl coa isn’t a ketone body, but ketone bodies may be converted into it
  • Acetone is formed from the breakdown of acetoacetic acid
  • acetone is responsible for yielding sweet-smelling breath and sweat
  • Unlike the other ketone bodies, acetone cannot be converted back into acetyl-CoA.
63
Q

Glycogen phosphorylase

A

typically cleaves segments from glycogen molecules while staying at least four monomeric units away from the branch point.
cleaves seven-unit segments from chain that are branched with α-1,4 connections.

64
Q

Glycogen synthase

A

adds glucose units to a growing chain by forming novel α-1,4 linkages.

65
Q

glycosyltransferase enzyme

A

removes a three-sugar segment from a branched chain and reconnects it to the parent strand, replacing one α-1,4 linkage with another.

66
Q

Glycogen branching enzyme

A

is used to establish new α-1,6 linkages

67
Q

Urea is derived from which molecule, and how is that substance freed from amino acid residues?

A

Ammonia; it is generated when amino groups are removed via an aminotransferase

68
Q

insulin

A

beta cells; promotes glycolysis and the storage of glucose in the form of glycogen

69
Q

Nucleic acids that can catalyze biological reactions include:

A

RNA only; can form complex tertiary structures

70
Q

G proteins

A

are only active when GTP is bound, a state that necessitates the release of GDP.

71
Q

best step for drugs to target

A

when in doubt go with the rate limiting step

72
Q

which organ removes old or deformed red blood cells from circulation and can induce lysis of fragile or old cells?

A

the spleen;
The capillaries of the spleen are much smaller than the diameter of a red blood cell, helping to induce lysis of fragile or old cells. If the spleen is removed, more damaged cells remain in circulation.

73
Q

cones (photorecptors)

A

depolarized when not exposed to light, and thus are not processing visual stimuli
hyperpolarized when exposed to light and are percieving color

74
Q

biopolar cells (optics)

A

When cone cells hyperpolarize (percieve color and are exposed to light), the bipolar neurons are no longer being inhibited and can then depolarize in order to transmit signal to the ganglion and eventually the optic nerve
-are hyperpolarized (inhibited) in absense of stimulus

75
Q

rods (optics)

A

depolarized when not being stimulated

hyperpolarize when being stimulated

76
Q

DNA gyrase

A

used by prokaryotes to supercoil their DNA

77
Q

Eukaryotic supercoiling

A

they wind their DNA around histones with the help of topoisomerases

78
Q

conjugation in bacteria

A

between a F+ and F- or Hfr and F-

79
Q

-RNA virus

A

cannot be directly translated by host machinery to become functional protein; gets used as a template strand for production of +RNA, which can then be translated by the host. Enzyme that produces RNA from an RNA template is RNA dependent RNA pol.

MCAT Bio/Biochem (2 decks)

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