Addiction - risk factors

Question 1

Outline genes as a risk factor for addiction

Answer 1

We have a genetic predisposition or vulnerability to addiction. Addiction only develops if a person is exposed to a substance—genes increase risk, but do not guarantee addiction.

Question 2

Why don’t genes alone determine whether someone becomes addicted?

Answer 2

Genes are not inevitable causes. A person must first be exposed to a drug, and whether this happens depends mainly on psychosocial factors such as peer pressure, stress, or environment.

Question 3

According to Blum (1991), what role does dopamine play in genetic vulnerability to addiction?According to Blum (1991), what role does dopamine play in genetic vulnerability to addiction?

Answer 3

Blum proposed that people vulnerable to addiction have low dopamine levels and fewer dopamine receptors (especially D2 receptors) in the brain’s reward system, making them more likely to seek out substances that increase dopamine.

Question 4

What is the D2 receptor and how is it linked to addiction?

Answer 4

The D2 receptor is a type of dopamine receptor. A low number of D2 receptors is linked to increased risk of addiction. The number of these receptors is genetically determined.

Question 5

What did Pianezza et al. (1998) find about the CYP2A6 enzyme and nicotine addiction?

Answer 5

They found that individuals lacking a fully functioning CYP2A6 enzyme metabolise nicotine more slowly and therefore smoke less. Those with the full version of the enzyme are more at risk of nicotine addiction due to faster metabolism.

Question 6

What does the CYP2A6 enzyme do and how does it relate to genetic vulnerability?

Answer 6

CYP2A6 is responsible for metabolising nicotine. Its expression is genetically determined, meaning some people are more vulnerable to nicotine addiction based on how efficiently they process the drug.

Question 7

What does the diathesis-stress model say about addiction and genetic vulnerability?

Answer 7

It suggests that addiction arises from an interaction between genetic vulnerability (diathesis) and environmental stressors. Not everyone exposed to stress becomes addicted—only those with the underlying vulnerability are at higher risk.

Question 8

How does the dopamine receptor gene variant (A1) relate to addiction risk?

Answer 8

The A1 variant of the dopamine receptor gene is linked to lower dopamine function. People with this gene are more likely to become dependent on substances like nicotine and cocaine that activate the brain’s reward system.

Question 9

What is a strength of genetic explanations for addiction?

Answer 9

They help explain individual differences in addiction risk, even when people share similar environments. Genetics account for why some develop addictive behaviour while others don’t.

Question 10

What is a limitation of genetic explanations for addiction?

Answer 10

McGue (1997) found stronger genetic links in male alcoholics, but inconsistent results in females. Only 2 out of 5 twin studies found higher concordance in female MZ than DZ twins, suggesting weaker genetic influence in women. This isn’t explained by the genetic risk factor explanation

Question 11

Outline Kendler et al’s study supporting evidence for genes as a risk factor. How does it support this factor?

Answer 11

used data from the National Swedish Adoption Study. They looked at adults who had been adopted away as children from biological families in which at least one parent had an addiction. These people had a significantly greater risk of developing an addiction themselves (8.6%) compared with adopted away individuals with no addicted parent in their biological family (4.2%). This suggests that the greater the genetic vulnerability the children had, the higher the likelihood of developing an addiction.

Question 12

What does the self-medication model propose about addiction (stress)?

Answer 12

The self-medication model suggests that individuals use pathological behaviors (e.g., alcohol, drugs, gambling) to cope with psychological symptoms caused by everyday stressors like relationship problems or work stress. The perception that these behaviors help reduce stress can lead to addiction.

Question 13

How does stress contribute to the initiation and maintenance of addiction?

Answer 13

Stressful events can lead to addiction initiation and maintenance by encouraging people to engage in self-medication behaviors. Moreover, stress during attempts to quit can contribute to relapse and increased cravings, making it harder to break the cycle of addiction.

Question 14

What did Piazza et al. (1991) discover about stress and addiction in rats?

Answer 14

Piazza et al. showed that stress (via tail pinching) combined with repeated exposure to amphetamines increased dopamine activity, making rats more likely to self-administer the drug. This suggests that stress can enhance the neurobiological effects of drugs, increasing vulnerability to addiction.

Question 15

How is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) linked to addiction?

Answer 15

PTSD is a stress disorder that can develop after traumatic events (e.g., combat, abuse). People with PTSD are at higher risk of addiction, especially when combined with early childhood trauma, as both PTSD and chronic stress increase vulnerability to addictive behaviors.

Question 16

What did Epstein et al. (1998) find in terms of the link between childhood trauma and addiction?

Answer 16

Epstein et al. found a strong correlation between childhood rape and adult alcohol addiction, but only for those women diagnosed with PTSD. This suggests that childhood trauma alone does not guarantee addiction; the presence of PTSD or other stressors is a key factor.

Question 17

What did Arevalo et al. (2008) find about stress and addiction?

Answer 17

Arevalo et al. found that stress was linked to illicit drug use but not alcohol addiction in a sample of women in substance abuse programs. This shows that stress may affect different types of addiction in varied ways.

Question 18

What is a limitation of the Arevalo et al. (2008) study?

Answer 18

A limitation is that the study used self-report measures, which can be affected by social desirability bias, leading participants to under-report substance use. This could reduce the validity of the findings.

Question 19

What is a strength of research into stress as a risk factor for addiction?

Answer 19

A key strength is that it offers practical applications. If addiction is linked to stress, then coping strategies for managing stress could reduce the need for addictive behaviors, leading to better prevention and treatment outcomes.

Question 20

Outline Cleck and Bendy’s study supporting evidence for stress as a risk factor. How does it support this factor?

Answer 20

Cleck & Bendy found that individuals with stress-related psychiatric disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety) often engage in addictive drug use. Chronic stress and traumatic events, like sexual abuse, are linked to increased use of substances like nicotine, alcohol, and cocaine. This supports the idea that stressful events are more likely to lead people to addictive behaviour as a stress reduction technique, therefore suggesting stress as a risk factor to addiction has a degree of validity.

Question 21

What is one limitation of stress explanations of addiction?

Answer 21

One limitation is that stress’s impact on addiction may vary based on the type of addiction. For example, stress may be a stronger risk factor for certain behaviors (like drug abuse) than for others (like alcohol use).

Question 22

How do personality characteristics influence addiction according to Eysenck?

Answer 22

Individuals with neurotic and psychopathic traits are thought to be more vulnerable to addiction. These traits may drive people to use substances to escape negative emotions and stress, which can lead to addiction.

Question 23

What is neuroticism, and how does it relate to addiction?

Answer 23

Neuroticism involves experiencing negative emotions, such as anxiety, depression, and low moods. People high in neuroticism are more likely to experience negative affect and may turn to substances to cope with these emotions, increasing their vulnerability to addiction.

Question 24

What is psychoticism, and how does it relate to addiction?

Answer 24

Psychoticism is characterized by emotional coldness, aggression, impulsivity, and aggression. People high in psychoticism are more likely to engage in impulsive behavior, such as substance use, without considering the consequences, which may increase their risk of addiction.

Question 25

How does extroversion influence addiction?

Answer 25

People high in extroversion are often under-aroused and experience boredom. To increase brain arousal, they may seek external stimulation, including through substance use, increasing their vulnerability to addictive behaviors.

Question 26

Outline Cleck and Bendy's study supporting evidence for personality as a risk factor. How does it support this factor?

Answer 26

Gossop & Eysenck (1980) found that neuroticism and psychoticism were significantly associated with addiction in a study of over 200 polydrug users (particularly heroin). This supports the link between personality and addiction. This therefore suggests that those with specific personality types are far more likely to form an addiction, indicating personality is a risk factor for addiction.

Question 27

What is a limitation of Gossop & Eysenck's (1980) study on personality and addiction?

Answer 27

A limitation is that the study used the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), which is a self-report measure. Self-report methods are prone to bias, such as exaggerating or downplaying personality traits, which may affect the internal validity of the findings.

Question 28

What is a key issue with research into the relationship between personality and addiction?

Answer 28

Research only shows a correlation between personality traits and addiction, not causation. Other factors, like genetics, family influence, or childhood trauma, may mediate this relationship. It is unclear whether personality traits trigger addiction or if addiction shapes personality.

Question 29

What does Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) suggest about how behaviours are learned? Link this to addiction

Answer 29

Social Learning Theory suggests that behaviours are learned through observation and imitation of individuals with whom a person has the most social contact, like parents. For example, adolescents with substance-abusing parents are more likely to engage in substance abuse themselves. Children observe and imitate their parents addictive behaviours.

Question 30

How is gambling behaviour transmitted within families according to research?

Answer 30

Research shows that gambling behaviours are transmitted gendered within families. Males often first experience gambling through their fathers, and females through their mothers. The types of gambling also vary: females are introduced to machines and bingo, while males are more often introduced to sports betting.

Question 31

How does parenting style influence addiction risk?

Answer 31

Parenting style affects the likelihood of addiction. For example, perceived parental approval—how much a child believes their parents approve of drugs or addictive behaviours—is a key determinant in whether adolescents engage in these behaviours.

Question 32

What are some key features of parenting style that influence addiction risk?

Answer 32

Degree of parental control: How much a parent intervenes in their child's life. Parental warmth: How much positive affect the parent shows towards the child. Authoritative parenting: A balanced approach showing warmth and appropriate control, associated with lower levels of substance abuse and better emotional resilience.

Question 33

What role does sibling influence play in substance use?

Answer 33

Studies show that the behaviour of older siblings strongly influences adolescent substance use. Older siblings act as role models for younger siblings, making them more likely to engage in similar behaviours, such as substance use or deviant behaviours.

Question 34

Outline Livingston's study supporting evidence for family influence as a risk factor. How does it support this factor?

Answer 34

Livingston et al. (2010) found that students allowed to drink alcohol at home by their parents were significantly more likely to drink excessively the following year at college. This supports the idea that family context can influence risky behaviours like substance abuse.

Question 35

What is a limitation of many intervention studies targeting addiction in families?

Answer 35

A limitation is that many interventions target only parents or the adolescent user. Since older siblings often play a stronger role in influencing behaviours like substance use, failing to address sibling influences may hinder efforts to reduce substance abuse.

Question 36

What is the role of peer relationships in addiction?

Answer 36

For older children, peer relationships are often the most important psychosocial risk factor for addiction, even outweighing family influences. This is true even if the peers themselves have not used drugs.

Question 37

What are the three major elements of peer influence as a risk factor for alcohol addiction (O'Connell et al., 2009)?

Answer 37

An adolescent’s attitudes and norms about drinking are influenced by associating with peers who drink. Peers provide more opportunities for the at-risk individual to drink. The individual overestimates how much their peers are drinking, leading them to drink more to keep up with the perceived norm.

Question 38

How does peer influence extend beyond alcohol use to other addictions?

Answer 38

Peer influence can create a group norm that favours rule-breaking behaviour, which includes drug use. This process underpins virtually any addiction, not just alcohol.

Question 39

What is normative social influence and how does it relate to addiction?

Answer 39

Normative social influence occurs when individuals engage in addictive behaviours to be accepted by their peers and avoid rejection or ridicule. The desire to fit in with the group encourages the adoption of harmful behaviours like drug use.

Question 40

What role do social networks play in addictive behaviours among adolescents?

Answer 40

Adolescents tend to form social networks with individuals who share similar behaviours. Smokers befriend other smokers, and non-smokers form friendships with other non-smokers. This can create an environment where addictive behaviours are normalized.

Question 41

How does social learning theory explain peer influence on addiction?

Answer 41

According to social learning theory, peers act as a form of vicarious reinforcement. Adolescents may observe and model the addictive behaviours of their peers, reinforcing the behaviour through the reward of social acceptance.

Question 42

Outline Stock's study supporting evidence for peers as a risk factor. How does it support this factor?

Answer 42

Stock (2011) found that teenagers who viewed peers' Facebook profiles showing alcohol use were more likely to: Be willing to use alcohol themselves, Have more positive feelings towards alcohol, Perceive lower risks associated with alcohol use. This shows how social media can alter adolescents' normative perceptions and risk cognitions related to alcohol. This supports that peers are an important influence on addictive behaviour and suggests that peers have an influence on addiction.

Question 43

Outline Eiser et al's study supporting evidence for peers as a risk factor. How does it support this factor?

Answer 43

Eiser et al. (1989) found that perceived rewards like social status and popularity were significant reasons why adolescents begin smoking and continue to smoke. This supports the idea that peer influence plays a strong role in addictive behaviours, explained through operant conditioning (reinforcement of behaviour).

Question 44

What is a limitation of research on peer pressure and its role in addiction?

Answer 44

It is difficult to establish whether peer pressure causes addictive behaviour or if individuals who are already prone to addiction select peer groups that reinforce their existing habits. Therefore, it may be that addictive behaviour leads to the formation of certain peer groups, rather than peer groups influencing addiction.