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GI and General surgery > Acute pancreatitis > Flashcards

Acute pancreatitis Flashcards

1
Q

What is acute pancreatitis?

A

Reversible inflammatory state of the pancreas

  • Mild (85%) - Mild form of interstitial edema of the gland
  • Severe (15%) - Patients with pancreatic, or peripancreatic, necrosis or acute fluid collections have severe pancreatitis
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2
Q

What are causes of acute pancreatitis?

A
  • Idiopathic
  • Gallstones
  • Ethanol
  • Trauma
  • Steroids
  • Mumps
  • Autoimmune
  • Scorpian venom
  • Hyperlipidaemia, hypothermia, hypercalcaemia
  • ERCP
  • Drugs
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3
Q

What is the pathophysiology of acute pancreatitis?

A

Self-perpetuating enzyme mediated autodigestion:

  • Enzymes cause leaky vessels, leading to tissue oedema and inflammation
  • Lipolytic enzymes -> fat necrosis
  • Released fatty acids bind calcium -> white precipitates in the necrotic fat
  • Proteolytic enzymes destroy aicnar tissue.
  • Destruction of blood vessels causes haemorrhage
  • Destruction of islet cells can result in hyperglycaemia
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4
Q

Why do individuals with pancreatitis get hyperglycaemia?

A

Due to destruction of islet cells

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5
Q

Why do those with pancreatitis have white patches in the necrotic fat?

A

Fatty acids produced by lipolytic enzyme breakdown of fat bind calcium, forming white deposits

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6
Q

What are symptoms of acute pancreatitis?

A
  • Gradual/sudden severe epigastric/central abdominal pain
  • Vomiting
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7
Q

What is characteristic of the pain experienced in acute pancreatitis?

A
  • Radiates to the back
  • Relieved by sitting forward
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8
Q

What are signs of acute pancreatitis?

A
  • Tachycardia
  • Pyrexia
  • Can be in profound shock
  • Jaundice - obstructive
  • Ileus
  • Rigid abdomen +/- local/general tenderness
  • Cullen’s sign
  • Turner’s sign
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9
Q

What is Cullen’s sign?

A

Periumbilical ecchymoses.

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10
Q

What causes cullen’s sign?

A

Retroperitoneal haemorrhage - The retroperitoneum is connected to the gastro-hepatic ligament, then the falciform ligament, and finally to the round ligament (the obliterated umbilical vein), which tracks to the abdominal wall around the umbilicus. When a haemorrhage (from any cause) occurs, blood is able to move along these ligaments to the abdominal wall to produce ecchymoses

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11
Q

What is Grey Turner’s sign?

A

Ecchymoses or purple discolouration of the flanks.

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12
Q

What is the mechanism behind Grey-Turner’s sign?

A

A hole in the abdominal fascia. A defect in the transversalis fascia allows blood from the posterior pararenal space to move to the abdominal wall musculature and the subcutaneous tissue

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13
Q

What are other causes of Cullen’s sign, besides acute pancreatitis?

A
  • Retroperitoneal bleeding
  • Post surgery
  • Anticoagulation
  • Rectus sheath haematoma
  • Ectopic pregnancy
  • Ischaemic bowel
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14
Q

What investigations would you do if you thought someone had acute pancreatitis?

A
  • Bloods - Amylase/lipase, FBC, U&Es, LFTs, Ca2+, Glucose, ABG, Lipids, Coagulation screen, CRP
  • Urinary amylase
  • Abdominal XR/Erect CXR
  • Abdominal USS
  • Contrast-enhanced spiral CT
  • MRI/MRCP
  • ERCP
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15
Q

What bloods would you do in someone with suspected acute pancreatitis?

A
  • FBC, U&Es, LFTs
  • Amylase/lipase
  • LDH
  • Albumin
  • Ca2+
  • Glucose
  • ABG
  • Lipids
  • Coagulation screen
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16
Q

Why would you perform an erect CXR in someone with suspected acute pancreatitis?

A
  • Exclude a gastroduodenal perforation
  • Pleural effusion, usually left-sided
  • Hemidiaphragm elevation
  • Basal atelectasis
  • Pulmonary oedema suggestive of acute respiratory distress syndrome
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17
Q

Why might you do an abdominal ultrasound in someone with acute pancreatitis?

A
  • To identify gallstones as a possible cause
  • Diagnosis of vascular complications, e.g. thrombosis
  • Identify areas of necrosis which appear as hypoechoic regions
  • Assessment of clinically similar aetiologies of an acute abdomen
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18
Q

Why would you consider doing a CT in someone with acute pancreatitis?

A

To assess extent/severity of pancreatic necrosis and for complications, including:

  • Abscess development
  • Fluid collection
  • Pseudocyst
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19
Q

Why would you do an ERCP in someone with acute pancreatitis?

A

Used to look at pancreatic duct for inflammatory fibrosis, tumours, gallstones. Can also be used to remove stones.

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20
Q

Why might you do an abdominal X-ray in someone with suspected acute pancreatitis?

A

Look for signs of fluid collection - retroperitoneal fluid

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21
Q

Why might you perform a glucose in someone with suspected pancreatitis?

A

Look for signs of hypo/hyperglycaemia

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22
Q

Why might you look at LFTs in someone with suspected acute pancreatitis?

A

Obstructive jaundice pattern

Look for signs of liver dysfunction caused by blockage of biliary system - e.g. gallstones which could cause pancreatitis

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23
Q

Why might you perform a coagulation screen in someone presenting with features of acute pancreatitis?

A

Look for causes of cullen’s/Grey-turner’s sign - clotting disorders

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24
Q

Why would you do an ABG in someone with acute pancreatitis?

A

Look for signs of acid/base disturbance and monitor oxygenation (to assess severity - Modified glasgow criteria)

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25
Q

How is amylase excreted?

A

Renally - renal failure will lead to accumulation

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26
Q

What are causes of raised serum amylase?

A
  • Upper GI perforation
  • Biliary peritonitis
  • Intestinal infarction
  • Macroamylasaemia
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27
Q

Why is a serum calcium measured in acute pancreatitis?

A

Look for hypocalcaemia & to assess severity - Modified glasgow criteria

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28
Q

Why would you assess U+E’s in someone with suspected acute pancreatitis?

A

Assess severity - Modified glasgow criteria

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29
Q

How would you manage gallstones as a cause of acute pancreatitis?

A

ERCP - can remove gallstones if progressive jaundice

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30
Q

Why might you do a CRP in someone with suspected acute pancreatitis?

A

Assess disease severity and prognosis

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31
Q

How long does it take amylase levels to fall back to normal after initial presentation of acute pancreatitis?

A

3-5 days - Late presentation may give false negative result

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32
Q

How would you assess the severity of pancreatitis in someone with acute pancreatitis?

A

Modified glasgow severity score

  • PaO2 < 8kPa
  • Age > 55
  • Neutrophilia > 15x109
  • Calcium < 2mmol/L
  • Renal function - Urea > 16 mmol/L
  • Enzymes - LDH > 600iu/L; AST > 200iu/L
  • Albumin < 32g/L
  • Sugar - >10 mmol/L
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33
Q

In the glasgow criteria for severity of pancreatitis, what threshold is used for PaO2?

A

<8kPa

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34
Q

In the glasgow criteria for severity of pancreatitis, what threshold is used for WBC?

35
Q

In the glasgow criteria for severity of pancreatitis, what threshold is used for Age?

36
Q

In the glasgow criteria for severity of pancreatitis, what threshold is used for Calcium?

37
Q

In the glasgow criteria for severity of pancreatitis, what threshold is used for Urea?

A

>16 mmol/L

38
Q

In the glasgow criteria for severity of pancreatitis, what threshold is used for LDH?

39
Q

In the glasgow criteria for severity of pancreatitis, what threshold is used for AST?

40
Q

In the glasgow criteria for severity of pancreatitis, what threshold is used for serum Albumin?

41
Q

In the glasgow criteria for severity of pancreatitis, what threshold is used for blood glucose?

A

>10 mmol/L

42
Q

How would you initially manage severe acute pancreatitis?

A

HDU/ITU

  • Oxygen
  • Nil by mouth - Consider NG/NJ or TPN
  • IV fluids
  • Invasive monitoring with hourly obs - vital signs, urine output (catheter), central venous pressure & blood gases
  • Analgesia
  • Consider Prophylactic ABx
  • Daily bloods - FBC, U+E’s, LFTs, clotting, serum calcium & blood glucose, amylase, consider ABG
43
Q

What analgesia would you use in someone with acute pancreatitis?

A
  • Tramadol
  • Pethidine
  • Indomethacin
44
Q

Why would you give IV fluids in someone with acute pancreatitis?

A

To counter third-space sequestration -> give until vital signs are satisfactory and urine flow > 30ml/h

45
Q

If someone was having problems with controlling their blood sugars, what might you consider giving them?

46
Q

What daily boods would you perform in someone with acute pancreatitis?

A

FBC, U+E’s, LFTs, Ca2+, clotting screen, glucose, amylase, ABG

47
Q

What are early complications of acute pancreatitis?

A
  • Shock
  • ARDS
  • Renal Failure
  • DIC
  • Sepsis
  • Hypocalcaemia/Hyperglycaemia
  • Ileus
  • Confusion/encephalopathy
48
Q

What are late complications of pancreatitis?

A

>1 week

  • Acute fluid collection/Pancreatic ascites
  • Pancreatic necrosis (sterile or infective)
  • Pancreatic Pseudocyst
  • Pancreatic Abscess
  • Bleeding - from elastase eroding vessels
  • Portal/splenic vein thrombosis
  • Fistulae
  • Pleural effusion
49
Q

What is a acute pancreatic pseudocyst?

A

Collection of pancreatic juice enclosed in a wall of fibrous or granulation tissue that arises following an attack of acute pancreatitis

50
Q

What are features of someone with a pancreatic pseudocyst?

A

Persistent hyperamylasaemia and/or pain

51
Q

How would you investigate someone for a pancreatic pseudocyst?

A
  • CT
  • Amylase
52
Q

How would you manage someone with a pancreatic pseudocyst?

A

Consider any of:

  • Percutaneous US/CT guided drainage
  • Endoscopic/Laproscopic/open cystogastrostomy
53
Q

What are complications associated with pancreatic pseudocyst formation?

A
  • Jaundice
  • Infection
  • Haemorrhage
  • Rupture
54
Q

How would you treat someone with a pancreatic abscess?

A

Antibiotics and analgesia

55
Q

Why can individuals with pancreatitis get bowel necrosis?

A

Thrombosis can occur in the splenic/gastroduodenal arteries, or colic branches of SMA

56
Q

What score do individuals need to get on glasgow severity scale for pancreatitis to be determined to have severe acute pancreatitis?

57
Q

What is the definition of mild pancreatitis?

A
  • No organ failure
  • No local or systemic complications
58
Q

What is classed as moderate acute pancreatitis?

A

Organ failure that resolves within 48 hrs +/- local/systemic complications without persistent organ failure

59
Q

What is classed as severe acute pancreatitis?

A

Persistent organ failure > 48 hrs (single or multiple)

60
Q

When is a psuedocyst classed as chronic?

A

When it persists >6 weeks

61
Q

What is a pancreatic abscess?

A

Circumscribed intra-abdominal collection of pus, usually in a proximity to the pancreas, containing little or no pancreatic necrosis, which arises as a consequence of acute pancreatitis

62
Q

What is pancreatic necrosis?

A

Diffuse or focal area(s) of non-viable pancreatic parenchyma

  • Sterile necrosis
  • Infected necrosis
63
Q

What is meant by walled off necrosis?

A

A mature, encapsulated collection of pancreatic and/or peripancreatic necrosis that has developed a well-defined inflammatory wall

Usually occurs after 4 weeks

64
Q

What is an acute necrotic collection?

A

A collection containing variable amounts of both fluid and necrosis associated with necrotizing pancreatitis

Usually occurs < 4 weeks

65
Q

Why can those with acute pancreatitis present with profound shock?

A

Caused by hypovolaemia & circulating cytokines

66
Q

How long after initial insult does it take for amylase to start to rise in acute pancreatitis?

A

Within 6 hours

67
Q

Wich stays elevated for longer in acute pancreatitis; serum amylase or serum lipase?

A

Serum Lipase

68
Q

Why can someone get hypocalcaemia in acute pancreatitis?

A

Due to deposition of calcium in fat necrosis - appears 3-8 days after attack

69
Q

When is CT indicated for in acute pancreatitis?

A
  • All patients with severe attacks - 3-10 days after admission
  • Diagnosis uncertain - within 24 hours
  • Clinical deterioration
  • Patients with organ failure/signs of sepsis
  • Suspected local complications
70
Q

What criteria need to be met to make the diagnosis of acute pancreatitis?

A

Diagnosis requires two of the following three features:

  1. Abdominal pain consistent with acute pancreatitis
  2. Serum lipase/amylase activity at least 3x greater than upper normal limits
  3. Characteristic findings on contrast-enhanced CT or less commonly MRI /abdominal US
71
Q

What would your differential diagnosis be for someone with symptoms of acute pancreatitis?

A
  • Perforated peptic ulcer
  • Acute cholecystitis / Biliary colic
  • High intestinal obstruction
  • Myocardial infarction
  • Rupture abdominal aortic aneurysm
  • Mesenteric ischemia
72
Q

Name the different scoring systems which are used to assess pancreatitis severity?

A
  • Ranson’s criteria
  • Glasgow Scoring System
  • APACHE II score
  • Modified Marshall scoring system
73
Q

When would you consider CT scanning someone with severe acute pancreatitis?

A

Between days 3-10 - look for evidence of local complications

74
Q

How would you manage mild pancreatitis?

A
  • Ward management with basic observations
  • Analgesia
  • Fluids
75
Q

When would you consider an early ERCP in someone with severe acute pancreatitis?

A
  • Severe gallstone pancreatitis
  • Signs of cholangitis
76
Q

How would you manage infected pancreatic necrosis?

A

Necrosectomy guided by CT findings

77
Q

How would you manage non-infected pancreatic necrosis?

A

Treat conservatively

78
Q

What complications can occur with a pancreatic pseudocyst?

A
  • Infection
  • Rupture
  • Pressure effect
  • Erosion into a blood vessel
79
Q

When is treatment for a pancreatic pseudocyst offered?

A

Only if symptomatic or onset of complications

80
Q

What are ultrasonographic features of acute pancreatitis?

A
  • Increased pancreatic volume (pancreatic body exceeding 2.4 cm in diameter, with marked anterior bowing and surface irregularity) with a marked decrease in echogenicity
  • Displacement of the adjacent transverse colon and/or stomach secondary to pancreatic volume expansion
81
Q

How are pancreatic fluid collections defined?

A

Presence or absence of necrosis (as described by the Revised Atlanta Classification):

82
Q

How are pancreatic fluid collections defined if there is no necrosis present?

A

Interstitial oedematous pancreatitis

  • Acute peripancreatic fluid collections (APFCs) (in the first 4 weeks)
  • Pseudocysts: encapsulated fluid collections after 4 weeks
83
Q

How are pancreatic fluid collections defined if necrosis is present?

A

Necrotising pancreatitis

  • Acute necrotic collections (ANCs): develop in first 4 weeks
  • Walled-off necrosis (WON): encapsulated collections after 4 weeks

GI and General surgery (44 decks)

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