ACES Flashcards
Originated from the Latin word PERSONA, which referred to a theatrical mask worn by Roman actors in Greek dramas.
A pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency and individuality to a person’s behavior.
Personality
Contribute to individual differences in
behavior, consistency of behavior over time,
and stability of behavior across situations.
Traits
Unique qualities of an
individual that include attributes such as
temperament, physique, and intelligence.
Characteristics
A theory can be a practical guide for a psychotherapist.
- A set of related assumptions that
allows scientists to use logical
deductive reasoning to formulate
testable hypotheses. - The components of a theory are not
proven facts in the sense that their
validity has been absolutely
established. They are, however,
accepted as if they were true. - Used by the researcher to formulate
hypotheses.
Theory
This can never fulfil all the
requirements of an adequate theory.
single assumption
can neither generate meaningful hypotheses nor possess internal consistency—the two criteria of a useful theory.
Isolated assumptions
Theory relates most closely to a branch of philosophy called _____________
, or the nature of knowledge, because it is a tool used by scientists in their pursuit of
knowledge.
EPISTEMOLOGY
Science is a branch of study concerned with the observation and classification of data and with the verification of general laws through the testing of hypotheses
Speculation
terms is defined as an educated guess or prediction scientific enough for its validity to be tested through the use of the scientific method
Hypothesis
A scientific investigator can derive testable hypotheses from a useful theory and then test these hypotheses.
Deductive Reasoning
The investigator then
alters the theory to reflect these results.
Inductive Reasoning
A classification of things
according to their natural relationships.
Taxonomy
This exist because the very nature of a theory allows the theorist to make speculations from a particular point of view.
Alternate theories
● First 5 years of life most shape personality
● Unconscious forces are most important
● Neurosis results from unhealthy moving
toward, against, or away from others
Psychodynamics
Unconscious
Freud
Early Recollections
Adler
Collective Unconscious
Jung
Archetypes
Klein
Object Relations
Horney
Identity Crisis
Erikson
Relatedness
Fromm
They assume primarily that people strive toward meaning, growth, well-being, happiness, and psychological health
● People strive to live meaningful, happy
lives
● People are motivated by growth and
psychological health
● Personality is shaped by freedom of choice, response to anxiety, and awareness
of death
Humanistic-Existential
Meaningful life
Maslow (Self-actualization)
Psychological well-being
Rogers
Growth
May
_____ argue that the unique and long-term tendencies to behave in particular ways are the essence of human personality
● People are predisposed to behave in unique
and consistent ways; they have unique traits
● There are five trait dimensions in human
personality
Dispositional theories
Traits
Allport
Motives
McCrae & Costa
● The foundation for thought and behavior is
biological and genetic forces
● Human thoughts and behaviors have been
shaped by evolutionary forces (natural and
sexual selection
Biological – Evolutionary
● Only explanation for behavior is the
conditions that create behavior
● Learning occurs through association and
consequences of our behavior
● Learning also occurs through succeeding
or failing and watching other people succeed
or fail in their tasks.
Learning-Cognitive
● Personality develops as an interaction
between the internal and external
characteristics of a person
Modeling Self-efficacy
The cognitive constructs we develop to
perceive the world and others mold our
personalities
Cognitive Affective units
Constructs
Kelly
The personalities, cognitive processes, developmental histories, and social experiences of personality theorists help shape their theories. The discipline that deals with these factors is called
● Investigates the impact of an individual
scientist’s psychological processes and
personal characteristics on the development
of his or her scientific theories and research
● Examines how scientists’ personalities,
cognitive processes, developmental
histories, and social experience affect the
kind of science they conduct and the theories
they create.
Psychology of Science
● A theory generates a number of hypotheses that can be investigated through research, thus yielding research data.
● These data flow back into the theory and restructure.
● From this newly contoured theory, scientists can extract other hypotheses, leading to more research and additional data, which in turn reshape and enlarge the theory even more
Generates Research
It contributes to expanding a theory
Concerned with the measurement, labeling, and categorization of the units employed in theory building.
Descriptive Research
Leads to an indirect
verification of the usefulness of the theory.
Hypothesis Testing
● A theory must also be evaluated on its
ability to be confirmed or disconfirmed
● A theory must be precise enough to suggest research that may either support or
fail to support its major tenets
● Falsifiability, however, is not the same as
false; it simply means that negative research
results will refute the theory and force the
theorist to either discard it or modify it
Is Falsifiable
● A useful theory should also be able to organize those research data that are not incompatible with each other
● A useful theory of personality must be
capable of integrating what is currently known about human behavior and personality development
Organizes Data
● The ability to guide the practitioner over the
rough course of day-to-day problems
● Without a useful theory, practitioners would stumble in the darkness of trial and error techniques; with a sound theoretical orientation, they can discern a suitable course of action
● The extent to which the theory stimulates thought and action in other disciplines
Guides Action
● A useful theory need not be consistent with
other theories, but it must be consistent with itself
● A theory is one whose components are logically compatible
● Its limitations of scope are carefully defined
and it does not offer explanations that lie
beyond that scope
● Uses language in a consistent manner
● A good theory will use concepts and terms
that have been clearly and operationally
defined
Internally Consistent
Part of the internal consistency of a theory is
A researcher uses the number of times a person smiles at others as a measure of friendliness. This an example of
Defines units in terms of observable events or behaviors that can be measured.
A set of Operational Definition
● In general, simple, straightforward theories
are more useful than ones that bog down
under the weight of complicated concepts
and esoteric language
● Should strive for simple measurement
models that use the minimum number of
parameters needed to explain a given
phenomenon
Parsimonious
Are people’s behaviors determined by forces
over which they have no control, or can people choose to be what they wish to be?
Can behavior be partially free and partially
determined at at the same time?
Determinism vs Free Choice
Are people doomed to live miserable, conflicted, and troubled lives, or can they change and grow into psychologically healthy, happy, fully functioning human beings?
Pessimism vs. Optimism
Do people act as they do because of what has happened to them in the past, or do they act as they do because they have certain expectations of what will happen in the future?
Causality vs. Teleology
Behavior is a function of past
experiences
Causality
An explanation of behavior in terms of future goals or purposes.
Teleology
Are people ordinarily aware of what they are doing and why they are doing it, or do
unconscious forces impinge on them and drive them to act without awareness of these underlying forces?
Conscious vs. Unconscious
Are people mostly creatures of biology, or are their personalities shaped largely by their social relationships?
Biological vs. Social
Are personal characteristics more the result of heredity, or are they environmentally
determined?
Heredity vs. Environment
Is the salient feature of people their individuality, or is it their common characteristics?
Should the study of personality concentrate
on those traits that make people alike, or should it look at those traits that make people different?
Uniqueness vs. Similarities
● You have been observing human personalities for nearly as long as you have been alive
● In making observations and asking questions, you are doing some of the same things psychologists do, that is, observing human behaviors and trying to make sense of these observations
● Psychologists, like other scientists, try to be systematic so that their predictions will be
consistent and accurate
RESEARCH IN PERSONALITY THEORY
The extent to which it yields
consistent results
Reliability
The degree to which an instrument
measures what it is supposed to measure
Validity
The extent to which an
instrument measures some hypothetical construct
Construct Validity
The extent that scores on that instrument correlate highly with scores on a variety of valid measures of that same construct
Convergent Validity
It has low or insignificant correlations with other inventories that do not measure that construct
Divergent Validity
It discriminates between two groups of people known to be different.
Discriminant Validity
● The extent to which a test can predict future
behavior
● The ultimate value of any measuring
instrument is the degree to which it can
predict future behavior or condition
Predictive Validity
He spent 4 months with Charcot, from whom
he learned the hypnotic technique for treating hysteria
Sigmund Freud
Disorder typically characterized by paralysis or the improper functioning of certain parts of the body
Developed a close professional association
and a personal friendship with Josef Breuer.
Hysteria
The process of removing
hysterical symptoms through “talking them out”
Catharsis
what are the levels of mental life?
- Unconscious
- Suppression
- Preconcious
- Conscious Perception
The Pleasure Principle
Has no contact with reality, yet it strives constantly to reduce tension by satisfying basic desires
Illogical and can simultaneously entertain incompatible ideas
Has no morality; that is, it cannot make value judgments or distinguish between good and evil
THE ID
It is the only region of the mind in contact with reality.
Freud held that the secondary process functions through the
The Reality Principle
The decision-making or executive branch of personality
Constantly tries to reconcile the blind,
irrational claims of the id and the superego with the realistic demands of the external world
THE EGO
It strives for perfection.
It has no contact with the outside world and therefore is unrealistic in its demands for perfection
A well-developed superego acts to control sexual and aggressive impulses through the process of repression
THE SUPEREGO
To Freud, people are motivated to seek
pleasure and to reduce tension and anxiety.
This motivation is derived from psychical and
physical energy that springs from their basic
drives.
Dynamics of Personality
A constant motivational force
Drive
Sex
The aim of the sexual drive is pleasure, but this pleasure is not limited to genital satisfaction
The ultimate aim of the sexual drive
(reduction of sexual tension) cannot be changed, but the path by which the aim is reached can be varied
Can take many forms, including
narcissism, love, sadism, and masochism
Eros
is the psychic energy
Libido
Aggression
The aim of the destructive drive is to
return the organism to an inorganic
state
The ultimate inorganic condition is
death, the final aim of the aggressive
drive is self-destruction
Is flexible and can take a number of
forms, such as teasing, gossip, sarcasm, humiliation, humor, and the enjoyment obtained from other people’s suffering
Psychic energy remained nameless
THANATOS
Freud emphasized this is a felt, affective, unpleasant state accompanied by a physical sensation that warns the person against impending danger
anxiety
As apprehension about an
unknown danger
Neurotic
An unpleasant, nonspecific feeling involving a possible danger
Realistic
Stems from the conflict between the ego and the superego
Moral
Are normal and universally used, but when carried to an extreme they lead to compulsive, repetitive, and neurotic behavior.
Defense mechanisms
most basic Freudian defense mechanism
Present in all defense mechanism
Whenever the ego is threatened by
undesirable id impulses, it protects itself by repressing those impulses; that is, it forces threatening feelings into the unconscious
Repression
A disguise that is directly opposite its
original form
Reactive behavior can be identified
by its exaggerated character
Reaction Formation
Which of the following terms is defined as a Freudian defense mechanism in which unwanted urges are redirected onto other objects or people to disguise the original impulse or concealed?
Displacement
terms is defined as a defense mechanism that arises when psychic energy is blocked at one stage of development, thus making change or psychological growth difficult
The permanent attachment of the libido onto an earlier, more primitive stage of development
Fixation
terms is defined as a defense mechanism whereby a person returns to an earlier stage to protect the ego against anxiety
Once the libido has passed a developmental stage, it may, during times of stress and anxiety, revert back to that earlier stage
Regression
Seeing in others unacceptable feelings or tendencies that actually reside in one’s own unconscious
Projection
Infants possess a sexual life and go through a period of pregenital sexual development during the first 4 or 5 years after birth
Infantile
A defense mechanism whereby people incorporate positive qualities of another person into their own ego
Introjection
The first phase because the mouth is
the first organ to provide an infant with pleasure
Infants obtain life-sustaining nourishment through the oral cavity, but beyond that, they also gain pleasure through the act of sucking
The sexual aim of early oral activity is to incorporate or receive into one’s body the object-choice, that is, the nipple
Oral Phase
Reaches fuller development during the second year when the anus emerges as a sexually pleasurable zone
Characterized by satisfaction gained through aggressive behavior and through the
excretory function
The anus is the leading erogenous zone
Anal Phase
Children take a friendly interest toward their feces, an interest that stems from the erotic pleasure of defecating
Late Anal Period
Children receive satisfaction by destroying or losing objects
Early Anal Period.
At approximately 3 or 4 years of age, children begin in this third stage of infantile development
The genital area becomes the leading
erogenous zone
Marked for the first time by a dichotomy between male and female development
Phallic Phase
According to Freud, a boy who feels strong hostility toward his father and sexual love for his mother is experiencing
An infant boy forms an identification with his father; that is, he wants to be his father
Later he develops a sexual desire for
his mother; that is, he wants to have his mother
Plays a role in the evolution of the castration complex, which for boys takes the form of castration anxiety or the fear of losing the penis
Male Oedipus Complex
Girls become envious of the male appendage, feel cheated, and desire to have a penis (penis envy)
Her libido is turned toward her father, who can satisfy her wish for a penis by giving her a baby, an object that to her has become a substitute for the phallus
Female Oedipus Complex
From the 4th or 5th year until puberty, both boys and girls usually, but not always, go through a period of dormant psychosexual development
Brought about partly by parents’ attempts to punish or discourage sexual activity in their young children
Latency Period
Puberty signals a reawakening of the
sexual aim
Adolescents give up autoeroticism and direct their sexual energy toward another person instead of toward themselves
For girls, the vagina finally obtains the same status for them that the penis had for them during infancy
For boys, they see the female organ as a sought-after object rather than a source of trauma
Genital Period
Stage attained after a person has
passed through the earlier developmental periods in an ideal manner
Unfortunately, psychological maturity seldom happens, because people have too many opportunities to develop pathological disorders or neurotic predispositions
Maturity
Born in Eilbek, a small town near Hamburg, Germany, on September 15, 1885 The only daughter of Berndt (Wackels) Danielsen, a sea captain, and Clothilda van Ronzelen Danielsen, a woman nearly 18years younger than her husband.
Karen Danielsen Horney
❖ Cautioned that strict adherence to orthodox psychoanalysis would lead to stagnation in both theoretical thought and therapeutic practice
❖ Objected to Freud’s ideas on feminine psychology
❖ Stressed the view that psychoanalysis should move beyond instinct theory and emphasize the importance of cultural influences in shaping personality
❖ Claimed that neuroses are not the result of instincts but rather of the person’s “attempt to find paths through a wilderness full of unknown dangers.
HORNEY AGAINST FREUD
The feelings of being alone in a potentially hostile world
This may lead to intensified needs for
affection (mistaken for love)
People of this society are imbued with the
cultural teachings of kinship and humility
Society’s demands for success and
achievement are nearly endless
Western society tells people that they are
free, that they can accomplish anything
through hard work and perseverance
Isolation
❖ Horney believed that neurotic conflict can stem from almost any developmental stage, but childhood is the age from which the vast
majority of problems arise
❖ No single early experience is
responsible for later personality.
THE IMPORTANCE OF CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES
Spawned from the assumption that modern culture is based on competition among individuals
If parents do not satisfy the child’s needs for safety and satisfaction, the child develops such feelings Children repress their hostility toward their parents and have no awareness of it
Basic Hostility
A feeling of being isolated and helpless in a world conceived as potentially hostile
Repressed hostility that leads to profound
feelings of insecurity and a vague sense of apprehension
Basic Anxiety
What are the Early Proposed Defense Mechanisms?
Affection
Submissiveness
Dominance
Withdrawal
- Neurotic individuals have the same
problems that affect normal people,
except neurotics experience them to
a greater degree. - Neurotic individuals cannot change
their behavior by free will but must
continually and compulsively protect
themselves against basic anxiety.
COMPULSIVE DRIVES
What are the Neurotic Needs?
▪ affection and approval
▪ powerful partner
▪ restrict one’s life within narrow borders
▪ power
▪ exploit others
▪ social recognition or prestige
▪ personal admiration
▪ ambition and personal achievement
▪ self-sufficiency and independence
▪ perfection and unassailability
What kind of Neurotic trends is:
Normal: Friendly
Neurotic: Compliant
Moving Toward People
What kind of Neurotic trends is:
Normal: Competitive
Neurotic: Aggressive
Moving Against People
What kind of Neurotic trends is:
Normal: Autonomous
Neurotic: Detached
Moving Away from People
The neurotic trends flow from basic
anxiety, which in turn, stems from a
child’s relationships with other
people.
Intrapsychic processes originate from
interpersonal experiences
As they become part of a person’s
belief system, they develop a life of
their own—an existence separate
from the interpersonal conflicts that
gave them life
INTRAPSYCHIC CONFLICTS
An attempt to solve conflicts by painting a godlike picture of oneself
People need to acquire a stable
sense of identity
This can be solved only by creating
an extravagantly positive view of
themselves that exists only in their
personal belief system
Idealized Self-Image.
An interrelated yet equally irrational and powerful tendency to despise one’s real self
Self-Hatred
The comprehensive drive
toward actualizing the
ideal self
Neurotic search for glory
In their search for glory, neurotics build a fantasy world—a world that is out of sync with the real world
Neurotic claims
A false pride based not on a realistic view of the true self but on a spurious image of the idealized self
Neurotic pride
- Born on June 15, 1902, in southern Germany
- Brought up by his mother and stepfather, but he remained uncertain of the true identity of his biological father
Erik Salomonsen Erikson
held that our ego is a positive force that creates a self- identity, a sense of “I.”
As the center of our personality, our ego
helps us adapt to the various conflicts and crisis of life and keeps us from losing our
individuality to the leveling forces of society.
During childhood, the ego is weak, pliable, and fragile; but by adolescence it should
begin to take form and gain strength.
THE EGO FOR ERIKSON
The experiences with our body; a way of seeing our physical self as different from other people
Body Ego
Represents the image we have of ourselves in comparison with an established ideal
Ego Ideal
The image we have of
ourselves in the variety of social roles we play
Ego Identity
The ego exists as potential at birth, but it must emerge from within a cultural environment
Different societies, with their variations in child-rearing practices, tend to shape personalities that fit the needs and values of their culture
SOCIETY’S INFLUENCE
A term borrowed from embryology The ego follows the path of epigenetic development,
with each stage developing at its proper time
One stage emerges from and is built upon a previous stage, but it does not replace that earlier stage
Epigenetic Principle
Growth takes place according to the
epigenetic principle
In every stage of life there is an interaction of
opposites
STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
other word for harmonious?
Syntonic
other word disruptive?
Dystonic
Alfred Adler’s theory presents an optimistic view of people while resting heavily on the notion of social interest (a feeling of oneness with all humankind).
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
Saw people as being motivated mostly by social influences and by their striving for superiority or success
Believed that people are largely
responsible for who they are
Present behavior is shaped by people’s
view of the future
Believed that psychologically healthy
people are usually aware of what they are doing and why they are doing it
Adler vs Freud
- The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the striving for success or superiority.
- People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and personality.
- The value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest.
- The self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s style of life.
- Style of life is molded by people’s creative power.
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
Their goals are personal ones, and their strivings are motivated largely by exaggerated feelings of personal inferiority, or by the presence of an inferiority complex
Striving for Personal Superiority
Psychologically healthy people who are
motivated by social interest and the success of all humankind
Striving for Success of Humanity
Also called Fictions or expectations of the future.
People are motivated not by what is true but by their _________________ of what is true
Subjective Perceptions
Because people begin life small, weak, and inferior, they develop a fiction or belief system about how to overcome these physical deficiencies and become big, strong, and superior
Physical Inferiorities
Thoughts, feelings, and actions are all
directed toward a single goal and serve a single purpose
Unity and Self-Consistency
The disturbance of one part of the body cannot be viewed in isolation; it affects the entire person
The deficient organ expresses the direction of the individual’s goal
Organ Dialect
The part of the goal that is neither clearly formulated nor completely understood by anindividual
Unconscious
Thoughts that are understood and regarded by the individual as helpful in striving for success.
Conscious
- Adler’s somewhat misleading translation of his original German term, Gemeinschaftsgefühl (a feeling of oneness with all humanity)
- Can be defined as an attitude of
relatedness with humanity in general as well as empathy for each member of the human community. - It is the natural condition of the human species and the adhesive that binds society together.
Social Interest
- The term Adler used to refer to the flavor of a person’s life
- It includes a person’s goal, self-concept, feelings for others, and attitude toward the world
- It is the product of the interaction of
heredity, environment, and a person’s
creative power
Style of Life
According to Adler (1956), the one factor underlying all types of maladjustments is underdeveloped social interest.
Abnormal Development
what are the one factor underlying all types of maladjustments is underdeveloped social interest?
- Set their goals too high
- Live in their own private world
- Have a rigid and dogmatic style of
life - Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies
- Pampered Style of Life
- Neglected Style of Life
These protective devices enable people to hide their inflated self-image and to maintain their current style of life
Safeguarding Tendencies
What are the Safeguarding Tendencies?
- Excuses
- Aggression
- Depreciation
- Accusation
- Self-accusation
- Withdrawal
Carl Jung’s theory rests on the assumption that occult phenomena can and do influence the lives of everyone.
Each of us is motivated not only by repressed experiences but also by certain emotionally toned experiences inherited from our ancestors
ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY
What are the LEVELS OF THE PSYCHE
Conscious
Unconscious
Personal Unconscious
Ego
Self
- Has roots in the ancestral past of the entire species
- The physical contents of the this are inherited and pass from one generation to the next as psychic potential
- The contents of the ________ do not lie dormant but are active and influence a person’s thoughts, emotions, and actions
Collective Unconscious
An emotionally toned
conglomeration of associated ideas.
Complex
- Ancient or archaic images that derive from the collective unconscious
Archetypes
Unconscious physical impulses
toward action
Instincts
The side of personality that people
show to the world
Persona
The archetype of darkness and repression, represents those qualities we do not wish to acknowledge but attempt to hide from ourselves and others.
Shadow
- The feminine side of men
- To master the projections of the ______, men must overcome intellectual barriers, delve
into the far recesses of their unconscious, and realize the feminine side of their personality
Anima
- The masculine side of women
- If a woman is dominated by her ______, no logical or emotional appeal can shake her from her prefabricated beliefs
Animus
- Everyone, man or woman, possesses this archetype
- This preexisting concept of mother is
always associated with both positive and negative feelings
Great Mother
- The archetype of wisdom and meaning
- Symbolizes humans’ preexisting
knowledge of the mysteries of life
Wise Old Men
- The most comprehensive of all archetypes
- The archetype of archetypes because it pulls together the other archetypes and unites them in the process of self-realization
- Symbolized by a person’s ideas of
perfection, completion, and wholeness, but its ultimate symbol is the mandala
The Self
- Stands for unity, totality, and order
- Exists within the collective unconscious of everyone
- To actualize or fully experience the self, people must overcome their fear of the unconscious; prevent their persona from dominating their personality; recognize the
dark side of themselves (their shadow); and then muster even greater courage to face their anima or animus
Self-Realization
- He emphasized the uniqueness of the individual
- He objected to trait and factor theories that tend to reduce individual behaviors to common traits
- He also advocated an eclectic approach to theory-building
- To him, a broad, comprehensive theory is preferable to a narrow, specific theory even if it does not generate as many testable
hypotheses.
Gordon Allport
Allport called the study of the individual ___________ and contrasted it with the __________ used by most other psychologists
morphogenic science and nomothetic methods
- He traced the etymology of the word
persona back to early Greek roots, including the old Latin and Etruscan meanings - After tracing the history of the term, he spelled out 49 definitions of personality as used in theology, philosophy, law, sociology,
and psychology - He then offered a 50th definition: “The dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment that determine his characteristic, behavior and thought.
ALLPORT’S “WHAT IS PERSONALITY?”
Implies an integration or interrelatedness of the various aspects of personality
Dynamic organization
Emphasizes the importance of both the psychological and aspects of personality
Psychophysical
Suggests that “personality is
something and does something”
Determine
Marked with a unique engraving, a stamp or marking, that no one else can duplicate.
Characteristic
They are omnibus terms meant to include internal behaviors (thoughts) as well as external behaviors such as words and actions
Behavior and thought.
- Healthy adults are generally aware of what they are doing and their reasons for doing it
- Allport did not ignore the existence or even the importance of unconscious processes
- He recognized the fact that some motivation is driven by hidden impulses and sublimated drives
ALLPORT’S “WHAT IS THE ROLE OF
CONSCIOUS MOTIVATION?”
Psychologically mature people are characterized by proactive behavior
ALLPORT’S “WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A HEALTHY PERSON?
People not only react to external stimuli but they are capable of consciously acting on their environment in new and innovative ways and causing their environment to react to them
It is not merely directed at reducing tensions but also at establishing new ones
Proactive Behavior
Are more likely than disturbed ones to be motivated by conscious processes, which allow them to be more flexible and autonomous than unhealthy people, who remain dominated by unconscious motives that spring from childhood experiences.
Mature personalities
Ordinarily they have experienced a relatively trauma-free childhood, even though their later years may be tempered by conflict and suffering
Healthy people
This is not a requisite for maturity, although healthy persons seem to become more mature as they get older
Age
What is the Six Criteria for Mature Personality?
- Extension of the sense of self
- Warm relating of self to others
- Emotional security or self acceptance
- Realistic perception of their environment
- Insight and humor
- Unifying philosophy of life
General characteristics held in common by many people
Provide the means by which people within a given culture can be compared to one another
Common Traits
“a generalized neuropsychic structure (peculiar to the individual), with the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide consistent (equivalent) forms of adaptive and stylistic behavior” –Allport (1961).
Personal Dispositions
What are the five levels of Personal Dispositions?
- Levels of Personal Dispositions
- Central Dispositions
- Secondary Dispositions
- Stylistic Dispositions
- Motivational Dispositions
- Some people possess an eminent
characteristic or ruling passion so
outstanding that it dominates their lives - These are so obvious, it cannot be
hidden - Nearly every action in a person’s life
revolves around this one?
Cardinal Dispositions
- Include the 5–10 most outstanding
characteristics around which a person’s life focuses - Allport described it as those that would be listed in an accurate letter of
recommendation written by someone
who knew the person quite well
Central Dispositions
- Less conspicuous but far greater in
number than central dispositions - Everyone has many ___________ that are not central to the personality yet occur with some regularity and are responsible for much of one’s specific behaviors
Secondary Dispositions
Personal dispositions that are less intensely experienced (guide actions).
Stylistic Dispositions.
Strongly felt dispositions which receive their motivation from basic needs and drives (Initiate Actions).
Motivational Dispositions
- Those behaviors and characteristics
that people regard as warm, central, and important in their lives. - Not the whole personality, because
many characteristics and behaviors of a person are not warm and central; rather, they exist on the periphery of personality. - Includes those aspects of life that a
person regards as important to a sense of self-identity and self enhancement. - Includes a person’s values as well as
that part of the conscience that is
personal and consistent with one’s adult beliefs.
Proprium
Most people are motivated
by present drives rather than by past
events and are aware of what they are
doing and have some understanding of why they are doing it
Motivation
Those that reduce a need.
Peripheral Motives
Those that seek to maintain tension and disequilibrium.
Propriate Strivings
- Represents Allport’s most distinctive
and, at the same time, most controversial postulate - It is Allport’s explanation for the myriad human motives that seemingly are not accounted for by hedonistic or drive- reduction principles
- Holds that some, but not all, human
motives are functionally independent
from the original motive responsible for the behavior
Functional Autonomy
What are the four Requirements of an Adequate Theory of Motivation
- Will acknowledge the contemporaneity of motives
- It will be a pluralistic theory— allowing for motives of many types
- It will ascribe dynamic force to cognitive processes
- Will allow for the concrete uniqueness of motives
The tendency of an impression to leave an influence on subsequent experience.
Perseverative Functional Autonomy
Those self-sustaining motives that are related to the proprium
Propriate Functional Autonomy
❖ Eysenck developed a factor theory
much like McCrae and Costa, but
because he fundamentally based his
taxonomy in both factor analysis and
biology, he derived only three, rather
than five, dimensions of personality
Biological and Evolutionary Theories
Th lead to structural differences in the central nervous system, including brain structures, hormones, and neurotransmitters.
Genetic differences
is the biologically based tendency to behave in particular ways from very early in life
Temperament
are assessed using brain imaging techniques
Biological aspects of personality
Individual behaviors or thoughts that may or may not be characteristic of a person
Specific Acts or Cognitions
Responses that recur under similar conditions
Habitual Acts or Cognitions
Important semi-permanent personality dispositions. Defined in terms of significant intercorrelations between different habitual behaviors
Trait
Made up of several interrelated traits.
Superfactors / Types
They arrived at a different number of personality dimensions because they worked at different levels of factoring
Eysenck and Cattell
factors does not imply that most people are at one end or the other of the three main poles
bipolarity of Eysenck’s
What are the three Eysenck extracted three general superfactors:
- Extraversion (E)
- Neuroticism (N)
- Psychoticism (P)
What are the three bipolar factors of Eysenck?
➢ Extraversion - Introversion
➢ Neuroticism - Stability
➢ Psychoticism – Superego
Extraverts are characterized primarily by sociability and impulsiveness but also byjocularity, liveliness, quick-wittedness, optimism, and other traits indicative of people who are rewarded for their association with others
Introverts can be described as quiet,
passive, unsociable, careful, reserved,
thoughtful, pessimistic, peaceful, sober, and controlled
Extraversion
A physiological condition that is largely inherited rather than learned
Cortical Arousal Level
have lower cortical arousal level that results in higher sensory thresholds, thus lesser reactions to sensory stimulation
➢ Extraverts - cortical arousal level
Characterized by a higher level of arousal, and as a result of a lower sensory threshold, they experience greater reactions to sensory stimulation
Introverts
People who score high on this often have a tendency to overreact emotionally and have difficulty returning to a normal state after emotional arousal.
Does not necessarily suggest a neurosis in the traditional meaning of that term.
Neuroticism
Eysenck proposed this emotional reactivity in neuroticism is due to this phenomenon.
Highly reactive Limbic System.
Suggests that some people are vulnerable to illness because they have either a genetic or an acquired weakness that predisposes them to an illness
Diathesis Stress Model
Scorers are often egocentric, cold, non-conforming, impulsive, hostile, aggressive, suspicious, psychopathic, and antisocial.
High P scorers (Psychoticism)
Scorers tend to be altruistic, highly socialized, empathic, caring, cooperative, conforming and conventional
Low P scorers (Psychoticism)
What are the MEASURING PERSONALITY?
• Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI)
• Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)
• Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)
• Eysenck Personality Questionnaire – Revised (EPQ-R)
A measuring personality that assessed only the correlation between extraversion and neuroticism
Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI)
A measuring personality that revision of the EPI and included a Psychoticism scale
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)
A measuring personality that contains a lie scale to detect faking, but more importantly, it measures extraversion and neuroticism independently
Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) -
A measuring personality that the result of subsequent criticisms of the Psychoticism scale in the EPQ which led to this revision
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire – Revised (EPQ-R) –
- He laid the foundation for the modern theory of evolution, even though the theory itself has been around since the ancient Greeks
- His major contribution was not the theory of evolution but rather an explanation for how evolution works, namely through selection (natural and sexual) and chance
Charles Darwin (1859)
(otherwise known as breeding”) this occurs when humans select particular desirable traits in a breeding species.
Artificial selection
It is simply a more general form of artificial selection in which nature rather than people select the traits.
Natural selection
This operates when members of the opposite sex find certain traits more appealing and attractive than others and thereby produce offspring with those traits.
Sexual selection
Evolved strategies that solve important survival and/or reproductive problems.
By-products are traits that happen as a result of this but are not part of the functional design.
Adaptations
Also known as “random effects,” occurs when evolution produces random changes in design that do not affect function.
Noise
PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY EVOLUTIONARY they were the first thinkers to argue for an evolutionary perspective of psychological thought and behavior.
Charles Darwin & Herbert Spencer
The first signs of change was put forth by him when he argued for a merger of the biological and social sciences and dubbed his movement “sociobiology”
E.O. Wilson (Edward Osborne)
Evolutionary Psychology
Coined in 1973 by a biologist named, and later popularized by the anthropologist John
Tooby and psychologist Leda Cosmides in the early 1990s
Michael Ghiselin
The scientific study of human thought and behavior from an evolutionary perspective and focuses on four big questions
Evolutionary Psychology
Kind of nature and nurture that the tendency to assume that the environment alone can produce behavior void of a stable internal mechanism
Fundamental situational error
Kind of nature and nurture that the tendency to ignore situational and environmental forces when explaining the behavior of other people and instead focus on internal dispositions
Fundamental attribution error
• Operate according to principles in different adaptive domains
• Number in the dozens or hundreds (maybe even thousands)
• Are complex solutions to specific adaptive problems (survival, reproduction)
Mechanisms
Physiological organs and systems that evolved to solve problems of survival.
Physical Mechanisms
Internal and specific cognitive, motivational, and personality systems that solve specific survival and reproduction problems.
Psychological Mechanisms
These drives are “adaptations” because they directly affect the health and well-being of the person
Motivation and Emotion.
Kind of evolved mechanism that aggression, dominance, achievement, status, “negotiation of hierarchy”
Power
Kind of evolved mechanism love, attachment, “reciprocal alliance”
Intimacy
▪ Personality Traits, he starts with the assumption that motivation, emotion, and personality are adaptive in that they solve problems of survival and reproduction.
▪ He conceptualizes individual differences and personality as strategies for solving adaptive problems
His model of personality very closely resembles the Big Five trait approach of McCrae and Costa but it is not identical in structure:
Buss
➢ The disposition to experience positive emotional states and to engage in one’s environment and to be sociable and self- confident
➢ Put into the language of evolution, this involves “hierarchy proclivities”; that is, how people negotiate and decide who is dominant and who is submissive
Surgency
➢ Marked by a person’s willingness and capacity to cooperate and help the group on the one hand or to be hostile and aggressive on the other
➢ this individuals are likely to work to smooth over group conflict and form alliances between people
➢ this marks a person’s willingness to cooperate
Agreeableness / Hostility
➢ One’s capacity and commitment to work
➢ people with this are careful and detail-oriented as well as focused and reliable
➢this signals to others whom we can trust with tasks and responsibilities and whom we can depend on in times of need
Conscientiousness
➢ All animals have alarm systems that warn them of potential danger and harm.
➢ This takes the form of anxiety as an emotional state.
➢ this involves one’s ability to handle stress or not.
Emotional Stability / Neuroticism
➢ One’s propensity for innovation and ability to solve problems
➢ It is closely aligned with intellect and intelligence but also a willingness to try new things and a willingness to have novel experiences rather than sticking with one’s routine
Openness / Intellect
Childhood experiences make some behavioral strategies more likely than others.
Early Experiential Calibration
Different people find what makes them stand out from others in order to gain attention from parents or potential mates.
Alternative Niche Specialization
Body type, facial morphology, and degree of physical attractiveness act as heritable sources of individual differences
Genetic Sources
The extent to which a trait is under genetic influence
Heritability
Non-adaptive Sources mutations that are neutral in that they are neither harmful nor beneficial to the individual.
Neutral genetic variations
Those that actively harm one’s chance for survival or decrease one’s sexual attractiveness
Maladaptive traits
In him these are the basic assumptions regarding motivation:
❖ The whole person, not any single part or function, is motivated.
❖ Motivation is usually complex.
❖ People are continually motivated by one need or another.
❖ All people everywhere are motivated by the same basic needs.
❖ Needs can be arranged on a hierarchy.
His hierarchy of needs concept assumes that lower level needs must be satisfied or at least relatively satisfied before higher level needs become motivators
Maslow’s
that the five needs composing this hierarchy
Conative Needs
THE HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Can be arranged on a hierarchy or staircase, with each ascending step representing a higher need but one less basic to survival
Basic Needs
Maslow listed the following needs in order of their prepotency?
- Physiological
- Safety
- Love and belongingness
- Esteem
- Self- actualization
__________ have prepotency over higher level needs; that is, they must be satisfied or mostly satisfied before higher level needs become activated.
Lower level needs
The most basic needs of any person.
Include food, water, oxygen, maintenance of body temperature, and so on.
The most prepotent of all. When people do not have their __________ satisfied, they live primarily for those needs and strive constantly to satisfy them.
They are the only needs that can be completely satisfied or even overly satisfied.
A second characteristic peculiar to _______ is their recurring nature.
Physiological Needs
- Include physical security, stability, dependency, protection, and freedom from threatening forces such as war, terrorism, illness, fear, anxiety, danger, chaos, and natural disasters
- differ from physiological needs in that they cannot be overly satiated
Safety Needs
Results from unsuccessful attempts to satisfy safety needs.
Basic Anxiety
The desire for friendship; the wish for a mate and children; and the need to belong to a family, a club, a neighborhood, or a nation
Also include some aspects of sex and human contact as well as the need to both give and receive love-
• People who have had their _______adequately satisfied from early years do not panic when denied love
• A second group of people consists of those who have never experienced ___________, and, therefore, are incapable of giving love
• A third category includes those people who have received ___________ only in small doses
Love and Belongingness Needs
Include self-respect, confidence, competence, and the knowledge that others hold them in high esteem.
Esteem Needs
The perception of the prestige, recognition, or fame a person has achieved in the eyes of others.
Reputation
A person’s own feelings of worth and confidence. It reflects a “desire for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for mastery and competence, for confidence in the face of the world, and for independence and freedom.
Self-esteem
Originally, Maslow assumed that this needs become poten whenever esteem needs have been met.
However, once esteem needs are met, they do not always move to the level of _________.
Why some people step over the threshold from esteem to _________ and others do not is a matter of whether or not they embrace the B-values.
Include self-fulfillment, the realization of all one’s potential, and a desire to become creative in the full sense of the word.
People who have reached the level of ________ become fully human, satisfying the needs that others merely glimpse or never view at all.
Self-Actualization Needs
They maintain their feelings of self-esteem even when scorned, rejected, and dismissed by other people.
Self-actualizing people
Unlike conative needs, this needs are not universal, but at least some people in every culture seem to be motivated by the need for beauty and aesthetically pleasing experiences
People with strong ________ desire beautiful and orderly surroundings, and when these needs are not met, they become sick in the same way that they become sick when their conative needs are frustrated.
Aesthetic Needs
Most people have a desire to know, to solve mysteries, to understand, and to be curious.
When this needs are blocked, all needs on
Maslow’s hierarchy are threatened; that is, knowledge is necessary to satisfy each of the five conative needs.
Maslow believed that healthy people desire to know more, to theorize, to test hypotheses, to uncover mysteries, or to find out how something works just for the satisfaction of knowing.
Cognitive Needs
- This lead only to stagnation and pathology
- Are nonproductive
- Are usually reactive that is, they serve as compensation for unsatisfied basic needs
- Perpetuate an unhealthy style of life and have no value in the striving for self- actualization
Neurotic needs
It is important to point out, progression up the ladder or staircase of needs is not all or none before the next level can be attained.
General Discussion of Needs.
Even though needs are generally satisfied in the hierarchical order, occasionally they are reversed.
Reversed Order of Needs
Maslow began to take notes in hope to find others whom he could called a ___________.
He concluded that emotional security and good adjustment were not dependable predictors of a _____________.
Good Human Being
Maslow eventually changed the term good human being into?
Self-actualizing person
- Types of VALUES OF SELF-ACTUALIZERS that are indicators of psychological health and are opposed to deficiency needs, which motivate non-self- actualizers
- Maslow termed this as “META NEEDS” to indicate that they are the ultimate level of needs
B-Values - “Being” values
The motives of self- actualizing people characterized by expressive rather than coping behavior and is associated with the B-values
Metamotivations
- Are capable of both giving and receiving love and are no longer motivated by the kind of deficiency love (D-love) common to other people.
- Are capable of B- love, that is, love for the essence or “Being” of the other B-love.
Mutually felt and shared and not motivated by a deficiency or incompleteness within the lover.
Self-actualizing people
He advocated a balance between tender-minded and hardheaded studies that would expand knowledge of how humans feel and think
- Even though he formulated a rigorous, internally consistent theory of personality, He did not feel comfortable with the notion of theory
Carl Rogers
His approach was variously termed
“client- centered,”
“person-centered,”
“student centered,”
“group-centered,”
“person to person.”
Of all the theories, Rogers’ ________ comes closest to meeting the standard for an if-then framework of formulated theories
PERSON-CENTERED THEORY
IF the therapist is congruent and communicates unconditional positive regard and accurate empathy to the client,
THEN therapeutic change willoccur
IF therapeutic change occurs, THEN the client will experience more?
Self-acceptance, greater trust of self
Rogers believed that there is a tendency for all matter both organic and inorganic, to evolve fro simpler to more complex forms
Formative Tendency
The tendency within all humans to move toward completion or fulfillment of potentials
is the only motive people possess
Because each person operates as one complete organism, actualization involves the whole person— physiological and intellectual, rational and emotional, conscious and unconscious
Actualizing Tendency
-Similar to the lower steps on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
-It includes such basic needs as food, air, and safety; but it also includes thetendency to resist change and to seek the status quo
-The conservative nature of ________ needs is expressed in people’s desire to protect their current, comfortable self- concept
Maintenance
-The need to become more, to develop, and to achieve growth.
-The need for enhancing the self is seen in people’s willingness to learn things that are not immediately rewarding people are willing to face threat and pain because of a biologically based tendency for the organism to fulfill its basic
Enhancement
A human’s actualization tendency is realized only under these three certain conditions:
➢ Congruency
➢ Empathy
➢ Unconditional Positive Regard
-Infants begin to develop a vague concept of self when a portion of their experience becomes personalized and differentiated in awareness as “I” or “me” experiences
-Once infants establish a rudimentary self structure, their tendency to actualize the self begins to evolve
THE SELF AND SELF-ACTUALIZATION
Organismic experiences of the individual; that is, it refers to the whole person—conscious and unconscious, physiological and cognitive
Actualization Tendency
The tendency to actualize the self as perceived in awareness
Self-Actualization
-Includes all those aspects of one’s being and one’s experiences that are perceived in awareness (though not always accurately) by the individual
Self-concept
-One’s view of self as one wishes to be
-The ideal self contains all those attributes, usually positive, that people aspire to possess
Ideal Self
-“The symbolic representation (not necessarily in verbal symbols) of some portion of our experience”
-Rogers used the term synonymously with both consciousness and symbolization
Awareness
Experienced events that are below the threshold of awareness
Ignored/Denied.
Experiences that are both nonthreatening and consistent with the existing self-concept
Accurately Symbolized.
We reshape or distort the experience so that it can be assimilated into our existing self-concept.
Distorted
-Many people have difficulty accepting genuine compliments and positive feedback, even when deserved
-They may be distorted because the person distrusts the giver, or they may be denied because the recipient does not feel deserving of them
Denial of Positive Experiences
-The person’s needs to be loved, liked, or accepted by another person
-If we perceive that others, especially significant others, care for, prize, or value us, then our need to receive positive regard is at least partially satisfied
BECOMING A PERSON Positive Regard
-The experience of prizing or valuing one’s self
-Rogers believed that receiving positive regard from others is necessary for positive self-regard, but once positive self- regard is established, it becomes independent of the continual need to be loved
Positive Self-Regard
They perceive that their parents, peers, or partners love and accept them only if they meet those people’s expectations and approval.
These conditions become the criterion by which we accept or reject our experiences
External Evaluations. Our perception of other people’s views of us.
Conditions of Worth
-Psychological disequilibrium begins when we fail to recognize our organismic\ experiences as self-experiences
-This happens when we do not accurately symbolize organismic experiences into awareness
Incongruence
When people are unaware of the discrepancy between their organismic self and their significant experience
Vulnerability
The experience we gain from awareness of an incongruence
Anxiety and Threat
A state of uneasiness or tension whose cause is unknown
Anxiety
An awareness that our self is no longer whole or congruent
Threat
The protection of the self concept against anxiety and threat by the denial or distortion of experiences inconsistent with it
Defensiveness
We misinterpret an experience in order to fit it into some aspect of our self- concept
Distortion
We refuse to perceive an experience in awareness, or at least we keep some aspect of it from reaching symbolization
Denial
People resort to this behavior when the incongruence between their perceived self and their organismic experience is either too obvious or occurs too suddenly to be denied or distorted
Disorganization
The first necessary and sufficient condition for therapeutic change
Exists when a person’s organismic experiences are matched by an awareness of them and by an ability and willingness to openly express these feelings
Congruency
Exists when therapists accurately sense the feelings of their clients and are able to communicate these perceptions so that clients know that another person has entered their world of feelings without prejudice, projection, or evaluation.
Empathy
When the need to be liked, prized, or accepted by another person exists without any conditions or qualifications.
Unconditional Positive Regard
- It is the psychology anchored of Filipino thought and experience as understood from a Filipino perspective
Enriquez: Sikolohiyang Pilipino
• refers to the wealth of ideas referred to by the philosophical concept of ‘essence’ and an entire range of psychological concepts from awareness to motives to behavior’’
First concentrated on a type of indigenization which is based largely on simple translation of concepts, methods, theories and measures into Filipino
diwa (‘psyche’)
– the general form of psychology in the Philippine context)
Sikolohiya sa Pilipinas (psychology the Philippines)
Theorizing about the psychological nature of the Filipinos, whether from a local or a foreign perspective)
Sikolohiya ng mga Pilipino (psychology of the Filipinos)
▪ Identity and national consciousness
▪ It’s against a psychology that perpetuates colonial status of the Filipino
▪ Psychological practice in a Philippine context
Major Characteristics of Sikolohiyang Pilipino:
▪ The core of Filipino psychology, it is humaneness at the highest level
▪ Implies unique moral obligation to treat one another as equal fellow human beings
Kapwa
▪ A unique social skill inherent in Filipino personhood.
▪ A request to feel or to be sensitive to
▪ There is ‘‘hesitation to react, attention to subtle cues and non- verbal behavior in mental role-playing
Pakiramdam
▪ Genuine acts of generosity, kindness and caring
Kagandahang-Loob
The uncomfortable feeling that accompanies awareness of being in a socially unacceptable position, or performing a socially unacceptable action
Hiya
To show his gratitude properly by returning the favor with interest
Utang na Loob.
Smooth interpersonal relations by going along with the group or the majority decision
Pakikisama
What are the Confrontative Surface Values?
Bahala Na
Lakas ng Loob
Pakikibaka
The Filipino attitude that tells them to face the difficult situation before them, and do their best to achieve their objectives
Bahala Na
Being courageous in the midst of problems and uncertainties
Lakas ng Loob
The ability of the Filipino to undertake revolutions and uprisings against a common enemy
Pakikibaka.
What are the Societal Values?
Karangalan
Katarungan
Kalayaan
What other people see in a person and how they use that information to make a stand or judge about his/her worth
Karangalan.
The equity in giving rewards to a person
Katarungan.
Freedom and mobility
Kalayaan
Freud held that ideas in the preconscious originate from
both the conscious and the unconscious.
Madison is frequently berated by his domineering employer. Madison is too timid to confront his employer, but he deflects his frustration by mistreating his dog, children, and wife. According to Freud, this is an example of
Displacement
Since early in his adolescence, Freud had a strong desire to
win fame by making a great discovery.
They influence behavior even when one is unaware of them.
Freud- unconscious
constantly seeks to increase pleasure and reduce tension.
Freud - id
Freud’s lifelong optimism and self-confidence may have stemmed from
being his mother’s favorite child
Which of the following terms refers to an individual’s need for sexual pleasure by inflicting pain or humiliation?
Sadism
Freud’s psychoanalysis rests on which two cornerstones?
Sex and Agression
According to Sigmlllld Freud, whenever the ego is threatened by undesirable id impulses, it protects itself by __ those impulses; that is, it forces threatening feelings into the unconscious
repressing
The principle source of frustration during Freud’s anal phase is
learning to dress oneself.
Robin protects herself against the threat of change by constantly clinging to objects and behaviors from her early childhood. It thus appears that Robin is relying primarily on which Freudian defense mechanism?
Fixation
Punishment of a child’s sexual behavior leads to suppression of sexual behavior, which leads to anxiety, which in tum leads to repession
Progression most consistent with the psychoanalytic theory
According to Freud, the ego is
partly conscious, partly preconscious, and partly unconscious.
A mother who has deep-seated hostility toward her only child but shows overprotection and hyper-concern for the physical well-being of her child illustrates which Freudian defense mechanism?
Reaction formation
Freud saw himself primarily as a
Scientists
revisions did Freud make to his theory of personality after World War I?
He laid emphasis on the aggression instinct
__ is a condition characterized by the reception of sexual pleasure from suffering pain and humiliation inflicted either by the self or by others
Masochism
Amy, an 18-month-old child, resorts to taking her baby sister’s bottle even though she has previously been weaned. This behavior illustrates which Freudian defense mechanism?
Regression
Freud’s three levels of mental life are
the unconscious, the preconscious, and the conscious.
According to Sigmund Freud, the id is primarily involved in
thumb-sucking behavior
Freud abandoned his __ theory–in 1897, the year after his father died.
seduction
Although Freud’s theory rates somewhat high on its ability to generate research, it rates low on
falsifiability and operational definitions.
focused on the importance of early childhood experience and on relationships with parents as guiding forces that shape personality development.
They see the unconscious mind and motives as much more powerful than the conscious awareness
psychodynamic theories
Statements formed in an if-then framework are most likely
Theories
Theories are tools used by scientists o generate research organize observations
role of theory within science
A theory may be set aside when it
loses its usefulness.
It yields consistent results.
Reliable test
theories emphasizes that what people think, feel, and do is always an interaction between nature and nurture?
Biological theories
The _____ perspective argues that how one thinks about oneself and other people, as well as the assumptions one makes and the strategies one uses for solving problems, are the keys to understanding differences between people
Cognitive
assume that not only are people driven by a search for meaning, but also that negative experiences such as failure, awareness of death, death of a loved one, and anxiety, are part of the human condition and can foster psychological growth
Existential theory
Dimension used by the authors to assess a theorist’s concept of humanity?
pessimism versus optimism
conscious versus unconscious
determinism versus free choice
The term “personality” comes from the Latin word “persona,” which mean
a theatrical mask
A set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses i
the definition of scientific theory
